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Farm  Mechanics 


MACHINERY  AND  ITS  USE  TO  SAVE 
HAND    LABOR    ON    THE    FARM 

Including 

Tools,  Shop  Work,  Driving  and  Driven 

Machines,   Farm  Waterworks,  Care 

and  Repair  of  Farm  Implements 


By 
HERBERT  A.  SHEARER 

AGRICULTURIST 
Author  of  "Farm  Buildings  with  Plans  and  Descriptions" 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  THREE 
HUNDRED  ORIGINAL  DRAWINGS 


CHICAGO 

FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO. 

Publishers 


s^ 


Copyright  1918 

By  Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co. 

Chicago 


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PREFACE 

More  mechanical  knowledge  is  required  on  the  farm 
than  in  any  other  line  of  business.  If  a  farmer  is  not 
mechanically  inclined,  he  is  under  the  necessity  of  em- 
ploying someone  who  is. 

Some  farms  are  supplied  with  a  great  many  handy 
contrivances  to  save  labor.  Farmers  differ  a  great  deal 
in  this  respect.  Some  are  natural  mechanics,  some 
learn  how  to  buy  and  how  to  operate  the  best  farm  ma- 
chinery, while  others  are  still  living  in  the  past. 

Some  farmers  who  make  the  least  pretensions  have 
the  best  machinery  and  implements.  They  may  not  be 
good  mechanics,  but  they  have  an  eye  to  the  value  of 
labor  saving  tools. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  emphasize  the  impor- 
tance of  mechanics  in  modern  farming ;  to  fit  scores  of 
quick-acting  machines  into  the  daily  routine  of  farm 
work  and  thereby  lift  heavy  loads  from  the  shoulders 
of  men  and  women ;  to  increase  the  output  at  less  cost 
of  hand  labor  and  to  improve  the  soil  while  producing 
more  abundantly  than  ever  before ;  to  suggest  the  use 
of  suitable  machines  to  manufacture  high-priced  nutri- 
tious human  foods  from  cheap  farm  by-products.* 

Illustrations  are  used  to  explain  principles  rather 
than  to  recommend  any  particular  type  or  pattern  of 
machine. 

The  old  is  contrasted  with  the  new  and  the  merits  of 
both  are  expressed. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

The  Farm  Shop  with  Tools  for  Working  Wood  and  Iron      9 

CHAPTER  II 
Farm    Shop   Work.  . '. 50 

CHAPTER  III 

Generating  Mechanical  Power  to  Drive  Modern  Farm 

Machinery 74 

CHAPTER  IV 
Driven  Machines 100 

CHAPTER  V 
Working  the  Soil 137 

CHAPTER  VI 
Handling  the  Hay  Crop 163 

CHAPTER  VII 
Farm  Conveyances 179 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Miscellaneous  Farm  Conveniences 197 

Index 241 


FARM  MECHANICS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  FAEM  SHOP  WITH  TOOLS  FOR  WORKING  WOOD 
AI^D  IRON 

FARM  SHOP  AND  IMPLEMENT  HOUSE 

The  workshop  and  shed  to  hold  farm  implements 
should  look  as  neat  and  attractive  as  the  larger  build- 
ings. Farm  implements  are  expensive.  Farm  machin- 
ery is  even  more  so.  When  such  machinery  is  all  prop- 
erly housed  and  kept  in  repair  the  depreciation  is  esti- 
mated at  ten  per  cent  a  year.  When  the  machines  are 
left  to  rust  and  weather  in  the  rain  and  wind  the  loss  is 
simply  ruinous. 

More  machinery  is  required  on  farms  than  formerly 
and  it  costs  more.  Still  it  is  not  a  question  whether  a 
farmer  can  afford  a  machine.  If  he  has  sufficient  work 
for  it  he  knows  he  cannot  afford  to  get  along  without 
it  and  he  must  have  a  shed  to  protect  it  from  the 
weather  when  not  in  use. 

In  the  first  place  the  implement  shed  should  be  large 
enough  to  accommodate  all  of  the  farm  implements 
and  machinery  without  crowding  and  it  should  be  well 
built  and  tight  enough  to  keep  out  the  wind  and  small 
animals,  including  chickens  and  sparrows. 

The  perspective  and  plan  shown  herewith  is  twenty- 
four  feet  in  width  and  sixty  feet  in  length. 

9 


10 


FARM  MECHANICS 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


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FARM  MECHANICS 


The  doorways  provide  headroom  sufficient  for  the 
highest  machines,  and  the  width  when  the  double 
doors  are  opened  and  the  center  post  removed  is  nearly 
twenty  feet,  which  is  sufficient  for  a  binder  in  field 
condition  or  a  two-horse  spring-tooth  rake. 

One  end  of  the  building  looking  toward  the  house  is 
intended  for  a  machine  shop  to  be  partitioned  off  by 
enclosing  the  first  bent.  This  gives  a  room  twenty  feet 
wide  by  twenty-four  feet  deep  for  a  blacksmith  shop 


Figure  3. — Perspective  View  of  Farm  Implement  Shed  and  Workshop. 


and  general  repair  -work.  The  next  twenty  feet  is  the 
garage.  The  machine  shop  part  of  the  building  will  be 
arranged  according  to  the  mechanical  inclination  of 
the  farmer. 

A  real  farm  repair  shop  is  a  rather  elaborate  me- 
chanical proposition.  There  is  a  good  brick  chimney 
with  a  hood  to  carry  off  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the 
blacksmith  fire  and  the  chimney  should  have  a  separate 
flue  for  a  heating  stove.  Farm  repair  work  is  done 
mostly  during  the  winter  months  when  a  fire  in  the 
shop  is  necessary  for  comfort  and  efficiency.  A  per- 
son cannot  work  to  advantage  with  cold  fingers.  Paint 
requires  moderate  heat  to  work  to  advantage.    Paint- 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


13 


ing  farm  implements  is  a  very  important  part  of  repair 
work. 

A  good  shop  arrangement  is  to  have  an  iron  work- 
bench across  the  shop  window  in  the  front  or  entrance 
end  of  the  building.  In  the  far  corner  against  the  back 
wall  is  a  good  place  for  a  woodworking  bench.  It  is 
too  mussy  to  have  the  blacksmith  work  and  the  carpen- 
ter work  mixed  up. 


'Figure  4. — Floor  Plan  of  Farm  Implement  Shed,  showing  the 
\^orkshop  in  one  end  of  the  building,  handy  to  the  implement  storage 
room. 


Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  bring  in  a  pair  of  horses 
for  shoeing,  or  to  pull  the  shoes  off.  For  this  reason, 
a  tie  rail  bolted  to  the  studding  on  the  side  of  the  shop 
near  the  entrance  is  an  extra  convenience. 

In  a  hot  climate  a  sliding  door  is  preferable  because 
the  wind  will  not  slam  it  shut.  In  cold  climates,  hinge 
doors  are  better  with  a  good  sill  and  threshold  to  shut 
against  to  keep  out  the  cold.  Sometimes  the  large  door 
contains  a  small  door  big  enough  to  step  through,  but 
not  large  enough  to  admit  much  cold,  when  it  is  being 
opened  and  shut.  Likewise  a  ceiling  is  needed  in  a  cold 
country,  while  in  warmer  sections,  a  roof  is  sufficient. 
Farm  shops,  like  other  farm  buildings,  should  con- 


14 


FARM  MECHANICS 


form  to  the  climate,  as  well  as  convenience  in  doing 
the  work.  A  solid  concrete  floor  is  a  great  coinfort. 
And  it  is  easily  kept  clean. 

The  perspective  and  floor  plan  show  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  doors,  windows  and  chimney  and  the  plac- 
ing of  the  work  benches,  forge,  anvil,  toolbench  and 
drill  press. 

Figures  3  and  4  show  the  perspective  and  floor  plan 
of  a  farm  shop  and  implement  house  40x16  feet  in  size, 
which  is  large  enough  for  some  farms. 

SHOP  TOOLS 

Good  tools  are  more  important  on  a  farm  than  in  a 
city  workshop  for  the  reason  that  a  greater  variety  of 
work  is  required. 

Measuring  Mechanical  Work, — In  using  tools  on  the 
farm  the  first  rule  should  be  accuracy.     It  is  just  as 


Figure  5. — Caliper  Rule.  A  handy  slide  caliper  shop  rule  is  made 
with  a  slide  marked  in  fractions  of  inches  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
The  diameter  of  a  rivet,  bolt  or  other  round  object  may  be  taken 
instantly.  It  is  not  so  accurate  as  calipers  for  close  measurements, 
but  it  is  a  practical  tool  for  farm  use. 


easy  to  work  to  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  as  to  carelessly 
lay  off  a  piece  of  work  so  that  the  pieces  won't  go  to- 
gether right. 

The  handiest  measuring  tool  ever  invented  is  the  old- 
fashioned  two-foot  rule  that  folds  up  to  six  inches  in 
length  to  be  carried  in  the  pocket.  Such  rules  to  be 
serviceable  should  be  brass  bound.  The  interior  mark- 
ing should  be  notched  to  sixteenths.    The  outside  mark- 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


15 


ing  may  be  laid  out  in  eighths.  The  finer  marking  on 
the  inside  is  protected  by  keeping  the  rule  folded 
together  when  not  in  use.  The  coarser  marking  out- 
side does  not  suffer  so  much  from  wear.  Figure  5 
shows  a  12-inch  rule  with  a  slide  caliper  jaw. 

In  using  a  two-foot  rule  to  lay  off  work  the  forward 
end  should  contain  the  small  figures  so  that  the  work- 
man is  counting  back  on  the  rule  but  forward  on  the 


Figure  6. — Small  Pocket  Oilstone.     Shop  oilstone  in  a  box,  100-foot 
measuring  tapeline  marked  in  inches,  feet  and  rods. 


work,  and  he  has  the  end  of  the  rule  to  scribe  from.  In 
laying  off  a  16-foot  pole  the  stick  is  first  marked  with 
a  knife  point,  or  sharp  scratchawl,  and  try  square  to 
square  one  end.  The  work  is  then  laid  off  from  left 
to  right,  starting  from  the  left  hand  edge  of  the 
square  mark  or  first  mark.  The  two-foot  rule  is  laid 
flat  on  top  of  the  piece  of  wood.  At  the  front  end  of 
the  rule  the  wood  is  marked  with  a  sharp  scratchawl 
or  the  point  of  a  knife  blade  by  pressing  the  point 
against  the  end  of  the  rule  at  the  time  of  marking.  In 
moving  the  rule  forward  the  left  end  is  placed  exactly 
over  the  left  edge  of  the  mark,  so  the  new  measurement 


16  FARM  MECHANICS 

begins  at  the  exact  point  where  the  other  left  off,  and 
so  on  the  whole  length  of  the  stick.  The  final  mark  is 
then  made  exactly  sixteen  feet  from  the  first  mark. 

In  sawing  the  ends  the  saw  kerf  is  cut  from  the  waste 
ends  of  the  stick.  The  saw  cuts  to  the  mark  but  does 
not  cut  it  out. 

In  using  a  rule  carelessly  a  workman  may  gain  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  every  time  he  moves  the  rule, 
which  would  mean  half  of  an  inch  in  laying  off  a  16- 
foot  pole,  which  would  ruin  it  for  carpenter  work.  If 
the  pole  is  afterwards  used  for  staking  fence  posts,  he 
would  gain  one-half  inch  at  each  post,  or  a  foot  for 
every  twenty-four  posts,  a  distance  to  bother  consid- 
erably in  estimating  acres.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  meas- 
ure exactly  as  it  is  to  measure  a  little  more  or  a  little 
less,  and  it  marks  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong. 

WOODWORKING  BENCH 

In  a  farm  workshop  it  is  better  to  separate  the  wood- 
working department  as  far  as  possible  from  the  black- 
smith shop.  Working  wood  accumulates  a  great  deal 
of  litter,  shavings,  blocks,  and  kindling  wood,  which 
are  in  the  way  in  the  blacksmith  shop,  and  a  spark  from 
the  anvil  might  set  the  shavings  afire. 

A  woodworking  bench.  Figure  7,  carpenter's  bench, 
it  is  usually  called,  needs  a  short  leg  vise  with  wide 
jaws.  The  top  of  the  vise  should  be  flush  with  the  top 
of  the  bench,  so  the  boards  may  be  worked  when  lying 
flat  on  the  top  of  the  bench.  For  the  same  reason  the 
bench  dog  should  lower  down  flush  when  not  needed 
to  hold  the  end  of  the  board. 

It  is  customary  to  make  carpenter 's  benches  separate 
from  the  shop,  and  large  enough  to  stand  alone,  so  they 
may  be  moved  out  doors  or  into  other  buildings. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


17 


Figure  7. — Carpenter's  Bench.  A  woodworking  bench  is  16'  long, 
3'  6"  wide  and  32"  high.  The  height,  to  be  particular,  should  be 
the  length  of  the  leg  of  the  man  who  uses  it.  Lincoln,  when  joking 
with  Stanton,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "a  man's  legs  should  be 
just  long  enough  to  reach  the  ground."  But  that  rule  is  not  suffi- 
ciently definite  to  satisfy  carpenters,  so  they  adopted  the  inside  leg 
measurement.  They  claim  that  the  average  carpenter  is  5'  10" 
tall  and  he  wears  a  32"  leg. 


Figure  8. — Carpenter's  Trestle,  or  Saw-Bench.  The  top  piec«  is 
4x6  and  the  legs  are  2x4.  There  is  sufficient  spread  of  leg  to  prevent 
it  from  toppling  over,  but  the  legs  are  not  greatly  in  the  way.  It  is 
heavy  enough  to  stand  still  while  you  slide  a  board  along.  It  is  2 
feet  high. 


18 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Carpenter  benches  may  be  well  made,  or  they  may  be 
constructed  in  a  hurry.    So  long  as  the  top  is  true  it 


Figure  9. — Shave  Horse.  For  shaping  pieces  of  hardwood  for 
repair  work.  A  good  shave  horse  is  about  8'  long  and  the  seat  end 
is  the  height  of  a  chair.  The  head  is  carved  on  a  hardwood  stick 
with  three  projections  to  grip  different  sized  pieces  to  be  worked. 


Figure  10. — Compasses,  Wooden  Clamp  and  Cutting  Pliers. 

makes  but  little  difference  how  the  legs  are  attached, 
so  long  as  they  are  strong  and  enough  of  them.  A  car- 
penter bench  that  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  work  must  be 


THE  FARM   SHOP 


19 


solid  enough  to  permit  hammering,  driving  nails,  etc. 
Usually  the  top  of  the  bench  is  straight,  true  and  level 
and  it  should  be  kept  free  from  litter  and  extra  tools. 
Good  carpenters  prefer  a  tool  rack  separate  from  the 
bench.    It  may  stand  on  the  floor  or  be  attached  to  the 


Figure  11. — Monkey-Wrenches  are  the  handiest  of  all  farm 
wrenches,  but  they  were  never  intended  to  hammer  with.  Two  sizes 
are  needed — an  eight-inch  for  small  nuts  and  a  much  larger  wrench, 
to  open  two  inches  or  more,  to  use  when  taking  the  disks  off  the 
shafts  of  a  disk  harrow.  A  large  pipe-wrench  to  hold  the  round 
shaft  makes  a  good  companion  tool  for  this  work. 

wall.  Carpenter  tools  on  a  farm  are  not  numerous, 
but  they  should  have  a  regular  place,  and  laborers  on 
the  farms  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  the  tools  where 
they  belong. 

WOODWORKING   TOOLS 

Every  farmer  has  an  axe  or  two,  some  sort  of  a 
handsaw  and  a  nail  hammer.  It  is  astonishing  what 
jobs  of  repair  work  a  handy  farmer  will  do  with  such 
a  dearth  of  tools.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  worry 
along  without  a  good  repair  kit.  Tools  are  cheap 
enough. 

Such  woodworking  tools  as  coarse  and  fine  toothed 
hand  saws,  a  good  square,  a  splendid  assortment  of 
hammers  and  the  different  kinds  of  wrenches,  screw 
clamps,  boring  tools — in  fact  a  complete  assortment  of 
handy  woodworking  tools  is  an  absolute  necessity  on  a 
well-managed  farm. 


20 


FARM  MECHANICS 


The  farm  kit  should  contain  two  sizes  of  nail  ham- 
mers, see  Figure  15,  one  suitable  to  drive  small  nails, 
say  up  to  eight  penny,  and  the  other  for  large  nails  and 
spikes;  a  long  thin-bladed  handsaw,  having  nine  teeth 


Figure  12. — Hand  Saw.  This  pattern,  both  for  cross  cut  and  rip 
saw,  has  been  adopted  by  all  makers  of  fine  saws.  Nine  teeth  to 
the  inch  is  fine  enough  for  most  jobs  on  the  farm. 


Figure  13. — Keyhole  Saw  with  point  slim  enough  to  start  the  cut 
from  a  half-inch  auger  hole. 


Figure  14. — Bramble  Hook  for  trimming  berry  bushes  and  cleaning 
out  fence  corners.    It  has  a  knife-edge  with  hooked  sawteeth. 


to  the  inch,  for  sawing  boards  and  planks ;  a  shorter 
handsaw,  having  ten  teeth  to  the  inch,  for  small  work 
and  for  pruning  trees.  A  pruning  saw  should  cut  a 
fine,  smooth  kerf,  so  the  wound  will  not  collect  and  hold 
moisture. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


21 


Farmers '  handsaws  are  required  to  do  a  great  many- 
different  kinds  of  work.  For  this  reason,  it  is  difficult 
to  keep  them  in  good  working  condition,  but  if  both 
saws  are  jointed,  set  and  filed  by  a  good  mechanic  once 
or  twice  a  year,  they  may  be  kept  in  usable  condition 
the  rest  of  the  time  by  a  handy  farm  workman,  unless 
extra  building  or  special  work  is  required. 


Figure  15. — Nail  Hammers.  Two  styles. 
The  upper  hammer  is  made  with  a  ball  peen 
and  a  round  face.  It  is  tempered  to  drive 
small  nails  without  slipping  and  shaped  to 
avoid  dinging  the  wood.  This  hammer 
should  weigh  18  or  19  ounces,  including  the 
handle.  The  lower  hammer  is  heavier,  has 
a  flat  face  and  is  intended  for  heavy  work 
such  as  driving  spikes  and  fence  staples. 


A  long-bladed  ripsaw  is  also  very  useful,  and  what 
is  commonly  termed  a  keyhole  saw  finds  more  use  on 
the  farm  than  in  a  carpenter's  shop  in  town.  It  is 
necessary  frequently  to  cut  holes  through  partitions, 
floors,  etc.,  and  at  such  times  a  keyhole  saw  works  in 
just  right. 

Handaxes  are  necessary  for  roughing  certain  pieces 
of  wood  for  repair  jobs.  Two  sizes  of  handaxes  for  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  work  are  very  useful,  also  a  wide  blade 


22 


FARM  MECHANICS 


draw  shave,  Figure  16,  and  shave  horse,  Figure  9.  A 
steel  square  having  one  24-ineh  blade  and  one  18-ineh 
is  the  best  size.  Such  squares  usually  are  heavy  enough 
to  remain  square  after  falling  off  the  bench  forty  or 
fifty  times.  A  good  deal  depends  upon  the  quality  of 
the  steel. 


I'l'l'l'liri'l'i'i'l'l'i'l'i'i'i'l'l'j'i'nii 


Figure  17. — Try-Square  With  Six-Inch  Blade.  Wood,  brass  and 
steel  are  the  proper  materials  for  a  try-square.  A  double  marking 
gauge  for  scribing  mortises  is  also  shown. 


Steel  squares  differ  in  the  measuring  marks,  but  the 
kind  to  buy  has  one  side  spaced  to  sixteenths  and  the 
other  side  to  tenths  or  twelfths.  The  sixteenth^  inter- 
est farmers  generally,  so  that  special  attention  should 
be  given  this  side  of  the  square.  The  lumber  rule  on 
some  squares  is  useful,  but  the  brace  rules  and  mitre 
calculations  are  not  likely  to  interest  farmers. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


23 


Screw-drivers  should  be  mostly  strong  and  heavy  for 
farm  work.  Three  sizes  of  handled  screw-drivers  of 
different  lengths  and  sizes,  also  two  or  three  brace  bit 
screw-drivers  are  needed.  One  or  two  bits  may  be 
broken  or  twisted  so  the  assortment  is  sometimes 
exhausted  before  the  screw  is  started. 


Figure  18. — Heavy  Hand  Ax  for  Use  on  the  Shop  Chopping  Block. 
A  beet  topping  knife  is  shown  also. 


Figure  19. — Heavy  Screwdriver.  The  strongest  and  cheapest 
screwdriver  is  made  from  a  single  bar  of  steel.  The  wooden  handle 
is  made  in  two  parts  and  riveted  as  shown. 


Pinch  bars  and  claw  bars  are  very  useful  in  a  farm 
tool  kit.  Farm  mechanical  work  consists  principally 
in  repairing  implements,  machinery,  fences  and  build- 
ings. Always  a  worn  or  broken  part  must  be  removed 
before  the  repair  can  be  made.  A  pinch  bar  twenty- 
four  inches  long.  Figure  21,  with  a  cold  chisel  end,  and 
another  bar  eighteen  inches  long  with  a  crooked  claw 
end,  Figure  22,  for  pulling  nails  and  spikes  comes  in 


24 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Figure  20. —  (1)  Ratchet  Screwdriver.  It  does  rapid  work  and 
will  last  a  generation  if  carefully  used.  (2)  Auger-Bit  of  the  Side 
Cutter  Type.  A  full  set  is  needed.  They  are  not  for  boring  into  old 
wood.     Running  once  against  a  nail  ruins  one  of  these  bits. 


Figure  21. — Handspike.  A  wooden  handspike  or  pry  is  about  seven 
feet  long  by  3  inches  thick  at  the  prying  end.  In  the  North  it  is 
usually  made  from  a  hickory  or  an  ironwood  or  a  dogwood  sapling. 
The  bark  is  removed  and  the  handle  is  worked  round  and  smooth 
on  the  shave  horse.  It  is  better  to  cut  the  poles  in  the  winter  when 
the  sap  is  in  the  roots.  After  the  handspikes  are  finished  they 
should  be  covered  deep  with  straw  so  they  will  season  slowly  to 
prevent  checking. 


Figure  22.- 


-Wrecking  Bar  for  pulling  nails  and  to  pry  broken  parts 
from  other  wreckage. 


Figure  23. — Carpenter's  Level.  For  practical  farm  work  the  level 
should  be  24"  or  30"  long.  Wood  is  the  most  satisfactory  material. 
The  best  levels  are  made  up  of  different  layers  of  wood  glued  to- 
gether to  prevent  warping  or  twisting.  For  this  reason  a  good  level 
should  be  carefully  laid  away  in  a  dry  place  immediately  after  using. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


25 


n     ^    1 


Figure  24. — (1)  Snips  for  cutting  sheet  metal.     (2)  Carpenter's 
Level,  iron  stock. 


Figure  25. — Wood-Boring  Twist  Drill  Bit.     Twist  drills  for  wood 
have  longer  points  than  drills  for  boring  iron. 


Figure  26. — Pod-Bit.  The  fastest  boring  gimlet  bits  are  of  this 
pattern.  They  are  made  in  sizes  from  %"  to  %"  and  are  intended 
for  boring  softwood. 


Figure  27. — Auger-Bits.  For  smooth  boring  the  lip  bits  are  best. 
The  side  cutters  project  beyond  the  cutting  lips  to  cut  the  circle 
ahead  of  the  chips.  For  boring  green  wood  the  single-worm  clears 
better  than  the  double-worm  bit. 


26 


FARM  MECHANICS 


very  handy.    These  two  bars  should  be  made  of  the  best 
octagon  steel,  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


Figure  28. — Extension  Boring  Bits.  The  cutting  lips  may  be  set 
to  bore  holes  from  %"  to  3"  in  diameter.  They  are  used  mostly  in 
softwood. 


:^^ 


Figure  29. — Ship  Auger.  This  shape  auger  is  made  with  or  with- 
out a  screw  point.  It  will  bore  straighter  in  cross-grained  wood 
without  a  point. 


^^ 


Figure  30. — Long  Ship  Auger. 


=^«RRWWRRWWRWRft> 


Figure  31. — Bridge  Auger.  The  long  handle  permits  the  workman 
to  stand  erect  whil«  boring.  The  home  made  handle  is  welded  onto 
the  shank  of  a  ship  auger. 


A  wooden  carpenter's  level,  Figure  23,  two  feet 
long,  with  a  plumb  glass  near  one  end,  is  the  most  sat- 
isfactory farm  level,  an  instrument  that  is  needed  a 
great  many  times  during  the  year. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


27 


Good  brace  bits  are  scarce  on  farms.  They  are  not 
expensive,  but  farmers  are  careless  about  bits  and 
braces.  Two  sizes  of  braces  are  needed,  a  small  brace 
for  small  pod  bits  and  twist  drills,  and  a  large  ratchet 
brace  with  a  6-inch  crank  radius  for  turning  larger 
bits. 


Figure  32. — Carpenter's  Jointer. 


Figure  33.- 


-Fore-Plane.     This  style  plane  is  preferred  to  a  regular 
jointer  for  most  farm  work. 


Twist  drill  bits  will  bore  both  wood  and  iron,  and 
they  are  not  expensive  up  to  three-eighths  inch  or  one- 
half  inch.  But  for  larger  sizes  from  one-half  inch  to 
one  inch  the  finest  lip  wood  boring  bits  will  give  the 
best  satisfaction.  Extension  bits  are  used  for  boring 
holes  larger  than  one  inch.  Two  extension  bits  are  bet- 
ter than  one  bit  with  two  lip  cutters.  They  will  bore 
holes  in  soft  wood  in  sizes  from  one  inch  to  three  inches. 


28 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Other  cutting  tools  such  as  jack  plane  jointer  and 
smoothing  plane,  also  an  assortment  of  chisels,  belong 
to  the  farm  equipment. 


Figure  34. — Tool  Box  of  Socket  Chisels  and  Gouges.  The  chisels 
are  sized  from  y^"  to  2"  in  width.  The  two  chisels  to  the  right- 
show  different  patterns. 

All  cutting  tools  should  be  of  the  best  design  and  the 
best  steel.  If  they  are  properly  used  and  taken  care  of, 
the  different  jobs  of  repair  work  can  be  handled 
quickly  and  to  great  advantage. 


FARM  GRINDSTONE 

A  grindstone  may  be  gritty  without  being  coarse  so 
it  will  bite  the  steel  easily  and  cut  it  away  quickly.  A 
good  stone  is  a  very  satisfactory  farm  implement,  but 
a  greasy  stone  is  a  perpetual  nuisance. 

There  are  grindstones  with  frames  too  light.  The 
competition  to  manufacture  and  sell  a  grindstone  for 


THE  FARM  SHOP  29 

farm  use  at  the  cheapest  possible  price  has  resulted  in 
turning  out  thousands  of  grindstone  frames  that  pos- 
sess very  little  stability. 

Grindstones  should  be  kept  under  cover;  the  best 
stone  will  be  injured  by  leaving  it  in  the  hot  sun.    The 


Figure  35. — Grindstone.  The  speed  of  a  grindstone  varies  with 
the  diameter  of  the  stone.  It  should  turn  just  fast  enough  to  keep 
a  flow  of  water  on  the  upper  face  surface.  If  the  stone  turns  too 
slow  the  water  will  run  down  ;  if  too  fast,  it  will  fly  off. 

sun  draws  the  moisture  out  of  the  upper  side  and 
leaves  the  lower  side  damp  and  soft  so  that  in  use  the 
stoiie  soon  becomes  flat  sided.  The  wet  side  freezes  in 
winter^  which  is  a  disintegrating  process. 

The  best  stones,  with  good  care,  will  become  uneven 
in  time.    The  remedy  is  to  true  them  with  a  quarter- 


30  FARM  MECHANICS 

inch  soft  iron  round  rod  used  like  a  lathe  tool  'over  an 
iron  rest  placed  close  to  the  stone  on  a  level  with  the 
center  of  the  stone.  The  rod  is  held  against  the  stone  in 
such  a  way  as  to  cut  away  the  high  bumps  and  make  the 
stone  truly  round.  The  stone  cuts  away  best  when  it  is 
dry.  A  small  rod  is  better  than  a  large  rod.  It  digs 
into  the  stone  better  and  takes  out  a  deeper  bite.  Large 
power  stones  in  machine  shops  are  trued  up  in  this  way 
frequently.  Farm  stones  often  are  neglected  until 
they  wabble  so  badly  that  it  is  difficult  to  grind  any 
tool  to  an  edge.  If  the  grindstone  is  turned  by  a  belt 
from  an  engine  the  work  of  truing  may  be  done  in  a 
few  minutes.  If  the  stone  is  turned  by  hand  the  work 
of  making  it  round  takes  longer  and  requires  some 
muscle,  but  it  pays. 

The  face  of  a  grindstone  should  be  rounded  slightly, 
and  it  should  be  kept  so  by  grinding  the  tools  first  on 
one  side  of  edge  of  the  stone,  then  on  the  other,  with 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  crosswise  to  the  face  of  the 
stone. 

For  safety  and  to  prevent  a  sloppy  waste  of  water 
the  stone  should  turn  away  from  the  operator. 

The  best  way  to  keep  a  stone  moist  is  by  a  trickle  of 
water  from  an  overhead  supply.  Troughs  of  water 
suspended  under  the  stone  are  unsatisfactory,  because 
the  water  soon  gets  thick  and  unfit  for  use.  Such 
troughs  are  forgotten  when  the  job  is  done,  so  that  one 
side  of  the  stone  hangs  in  the  water.  An  overhead  sup- 
ply of  water  leaks  away  and  no  damage  is  done. 

Grindstone  frames  are  best  made  of  wood  3'^x4'' 
thoroughly  mortised  together  and  well  braced  with 
wooden  braces  and  tied  across  with  plenty  of  iron  rods. 
A  good  grindstone  frame  could  be  made  of  angle  iron, 
but  manufacturers  generally  fail  in  the  attempt. 


THE  FARM  SHOP         '  31 

There  are  good  ball-bearing  grindstone  hangers  on 
the  market,  both  for  hand  crank  stones  and  for  belt 
use. 

The  belt  is  less  in  the  way  if  it  is  brought  up  from 
below.  This  is  not  difficult  to  do.  A  grindstone  turns 
slower  than  any  other  farm  machine  so  a  speed  reduc- 
ing jack  may  be  bolted  to  the  floor  at  the  back  of  the 
grindstone  a  little  to  one  side  to  escape  the  drip.  This 
arrangement  requires  a  shoi^t  belt  but  it  may  have  the 
full  face  width  of  the  pulley  as  the  tight  and  loose  pul- 
leys are  on  the  jack  shaft. 

Emery  Grinders. — There  are  small  emery  wheels 
made  for  grinding  disks  that  work  quickly  and  cut  an 


Figure  36. — Emery  Grinder.  The  illustrations  show  two  kinds  of 
grinding  that  double  emery  wheels  are  especially  adapted  to.  To 
grind  a  mowing-machine  knife  it  is  necessary  to  reverse.  By  placing 
the  rest  opposite  the  center  between  the  two  wheels  the  bevel  will 
be  the  same  on  both  sides,  or  edges,  of  the  section. 

even  bevel  all  around.  They  are  made  in  pairs  and  are 
attached  to  the  ends  of  a  mandrel  supported  by  a  metal 
stand  which  is  bolted  to  a  bench.  The  same  rig  is  used 
for  sickle  grinding  and  other  farm  jobs. 

BLACKSMITH  SHOP 

The  furniture  in  a  blacksmith  shop  consists  of  forge, 
anvil,  half  barrel,  vise  bench,  drill  press  and  tool  rack. 
A  farm  shop  also  has  a  heating  stove,  shave  horse,  a 
woodworking  bench,  a  good  power  driven  grindstone 
and  a  double  emery  grinder. 


32  FARM  MECHANICS 

Forge, — The  old-fashioned  forge  laid  up  with  brick 
in  connection  with  an  old-fashioned  chimney  is  just  as 
popular  as  ever.  The  same  old  tuyer  iron  receives  the 
air  blast  from  the  same  old  style  leather  bellows,  and 
there  is  nothing  more  satisfactory.    But  there  are  mod- 


Figure  37. — Portable  Forges.  The  smaller  forge  is  for  light  work 
such  as  heating  rivets  for  iron  bridge  construction.  The  larger 
forge  to  the  right  is  meant  for  blacksmith  work. 

ern  portable  forges,  Figure  37,  made  of  iron,  that  are 
less  artistic,  cheaper,  take  up  less  room  and  answer 
the  purpose  just  about  as  well.  The  portable  iron  forge 
has  a  small  blower  attached  to  the  frame  which  feeds 
oxygen  into  the  fire.  There  are  a  good  many  different 
sizes  of  portable  forges.  Most  of  them  work  well  up  to 
their  advertised  capacity. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


33 


Generally,  farm  forges  are  not  required  to  develop 
a  great  amount  of  heat.  Farmers  do  but  little  weld- 
ing, most  of  the  forge  work  on  the  farm  being  eon- 
fined  to  repair  work  such  as  heating  brace  irons,  so 
they  may  be  easily  bent  into  the  proper  shape,  or  to 
soften  metal  so  that  holes  may  be  punched  through  it 
easily. 

Sharpening  harrow  teeth,  drawing  out  plow  points 
and  horseshoeing  are  about  the  heaviest  forge  jobs  re- 


Figure  38. — Anvil.     The  only  satisfactory  anvil  is  forged  ©ut  of 
ingot  steel  with  a  power  trip-hammer.    It  should  weigh  140  pounds. 


quired  in  a  farm  blacksmith  shop,  so  that  a  medium  size 
forge  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Anvil. — ^An  anvil  should  weigh  at  least  120  pounds ; 
140  is  better.  It  should  be  set  six  feet  from  the  center 
of  the  fire  to  the  center  of  the  anvil.  It  should  be 
placed  on  a  timber  the  size  of  the  base  of  the  anvil  set 
three  feet  in  the  ground.  The  top  of  the  anvil  should 
be  about  thirty  inches  high.  Holmstrom's  rule  is: 
*^  Close  the  fist,  stand  erect  with  the  arm  hanging 
down.  The  knuckles  should  just  clear  the  face  of  the 
anvil." 


34 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Bench  and  Vise, — The  vise  bench  should  be  made 
solid  and  it  should  face  a  good  light.  The  bench  win- 
dow should  look  to  the  east  or  north  if  possible.    It 


Figure  39. —  (1)  Shoeing  Tool  Box.  The  four  small  compartments 
are  for  horseshoe  nails  of  different  sizes.  There  may  be  a  leather 
loop  for  the  paring  knife.  The  low  box  end  is  for  the  shoeing  ham- 
mer, rasp,  nippers  and  hoof  knife.  (2)  Blacksmith  Tool  Rack. 
Tongs,  handled  punches  and  cutters  are  hung  on  the  iron  rails. 
Hammers  are  thrown  on  top.  The  lower  platform  is  the  shop 
catch-all. 


Figure  40. — Shoeing  Knife.  Good  temper  is  the  main  qualifica- 
tiop.  All  shoeing  knives  are  practically  the  same  shape,  although 
they  may  vary  in  size. 


should  be  about  four  feet  high  and  eight  feet  long, 

with  the  window  sill  about  six  inches  above  the  bench. 

Two  and  one-half  feet  is  the  usual  height  for  a 

workbench  above  the  floor.    The  best  workbench  tops 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


35 


are  made  by  bolting  together  2x4 's  with  the  edges  up. 
Hardwood  makes  the  best  bench,  but  good  pine  will 
last  for  years.  The  top  surface  should  be  planed  true 
and  smooth  after  the  nuts  are  drawn  tight. 


Figure  41. — Horseshoeing  Rasp  and  Wood  Rasp.     These  are  neces- 
sary tools  in  the  farm  shop. 


Figure  42. — Iron  Work  Bench.  Solid  is  the  first  specification  for 
an  iron  shop  bench.  It  should  be  three  feet  wide,  not  less  than 
eight  feet  long  and  about  32  inches  high.  The  top  is  made  of  2x4s 
placed  on  edge  and  bolted  together.  The  supports  are  2x6  bolted 
to  the  shop  studding  and  braced  back  to  the  studding  at  the  sill. 
The  front  part  of  the  bench  is  supported  by  iron  legs  made  of  gas- 
pipe  with  threaded  flanges  at  top  and  bottom.  Heavy  right  angle 
wrought  iron  lugs  are  used  to  fasten  the  top  of  the  bench  to  the 
studding.  The  foot  of  the  vise  leg  is  let  into  the  floor  of  the  shop 
or  into  a  solid  wooden  block  sunk  in  the  ground. 


The  bench  vise  should  be  heavy.  A  vise  is  used  for 
bending  iron  hot  from  the  forge.  Unless  the  jaws  are 
large,  the  hot  iron  is  likely  to  heat  the  vise  sufficiently 
to  draw  the  temper.    Heavy  jaws  are  solid  enough  to 


86 


FARM  MECHANTCIS 


support  the  iron  when  it  is  being  hammered.  Often 
heavy  hammers  are  used  for  this  purpose.  A  heayy 
vise  holds  the  work  solid,  because  it  may  be  screwed 


I 


Figure  43. — Assortment  of  Files  and  Rasps  needed  in  a  farm  shop. 
(1)  Slim  three-cornered  handsaw-file.  (2)  Common  three-cornered 
file  suitable  for  filing  a  buck-saw.  (3)  Double-cut,  or  bastard,  10- 
inch  flat  file.  (4)  Single-cut,  or  mill  file,  either  10  or  12  inches. 
(5)  Half-round  10-inch  wood  rasp.     (6)  Horseshoer's  rasp. 


Figure  44. — File  Handle.  Basswood  makes  the  most  satisfactory 
file  handles.  They  are  fitted  by  carefully  turning  them  onto  the 
file  shank  to  take  the  right  taper.  There  should  be  a  handle  for 
each  file.  The  handle  should  be  the  right  size  and  fitted  straight 
with  the  file  so  the  file  will  take  the  same  angle  to  the  work  when 
turned  over. 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


37 


Figure  45. — Nail  Set.  On  all  wooden  surfaces  to  be  painted  nails 
should  be  carefuly  driven  with  a  round  peen  nail  hammer  and  the 
heads  sunk  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  deep  with  a  nail  set..  The 
holes  may  then  be  filled  with  putty  and  covered  smoothly  with  paint. 


Figure  46. — Cold-Chisel.  There  are  more  flat  cold-chisels  than 
all  other  shapes.  They  are  easily  made  in  the  farm  shop  and  it  is 
good  practice.  They  are  usually  made  from  octagon  steel.  Differ- 
ent sizes  are  needed  according  to  the  work  in  hand.  A  piece  of  %" 
steel  6"  long  makes  a  handy  cold-chisel  for  repair  work. 


Figure  47. — Cape  Cold-Chisel.     It  may  be  tapered  both  ways  or  one 
way  to  a  cutting  edge,  or  one  edge  may  be  rounded. 


Figure  48. —  (1)  Tinner's  Punch.  Made  of  octagon  steel  in  sizes 
to  fit  the  rivets.  The  cutting  end  is  flat  and  has  sharp  edges  made 
by  roll  filing.  It  should  be  about  7"  long  and  from  %"  to  %"  in 
diameter,  according  to  the  size  of  rivet  and  thickness  of  sheet  metal 
to  be  punched.  (2)  Prick  Punch.  Usually  made  rather  short  and 
stocky.  It  may  be  i/^"  or  %"  diameter  and  4i^"  to  5"  long.  (3) 
Hot-Iron  Punch."  Made  in  many  sizes  and  lengths.  The  taper 
should  be  the  same  as  the  drawing. 


38 


FARM  MECHANICS 


SO  much  tighter  than  a  light  vise.  A  heavy  vise  will 
hold  light  work,  but  a  light  vise  will  not  hold  heavy 
work.    Heavy  vises  cost  more,  but  they  are  cheaper  in 


Figure  49. —  (1)  Blacksmith  Vise.  The  old-fashioned  leg  vise  is 
the  most  satisfactory  for  the  blacksmith  shop.  It  should  have  5" 
jaws.  (2)  Power  Post  Drill.  Belt  power  is  practical  for  the  post 
drill  in  a  farm  shop.  The  hand  crank  may  be  easily  attached  when 
needed. 


the  end  and  more  satisfactory  at  all  times.  A  leg  vise 
with  five-inch  jaws  weighs  about  sixty  pounds ;  five  and 
one-half -inch  jaws,  eighty  pounds.    A  machinist's  vise 


THE  FARM  SHOP  39 

is  made  to  bolt  on  top  of  the  bench.  It  will  answer  for 
blacksmith  work  on  the  farm,  but  is  not  as  good  as  the 
old-fashioned  leg  vise.  A  machinist's  vise  is  very  use- 
ful in  the  garage,  but  it  would  hardly  be  necessary  to 
have  two  heavy  vises.  The  pipe  vise  belongs  on  a 
separate  bench,  which  may  be  a  plank  bracketed 
against  the  side  of  the  room. 

Drill-Press, — The  most  satisfactory  drill-press  for 
use  on  a  farm  is  the  upright  drill  that  bolts  to  a  post. 
There  is  usually  a  self  feed  which  may  be  regulated 
according  to  the  work.  The  heavy  flywheel  keeps  the 
motion  steady,  and  because  there  is  no  bench  in  the 
way,  wagon  tires  may  be  suspended  from  the  drill 
block,  so  they  will  hang  free  and  true  for  drilling. 
Often  long  pieces  of  straight  iron  are  drilled  with 
holes  spaced  certain  distances  apart.  It  is  easier  to 
pass  them  along  when  they  lie  flat  side  down  on  the 
drill  block.  To  use  a  drill  properly  and  safely,  the 
chuck  must  run  true.  It  is  easy  to  break  a  drill  when 
it  wabbles. 

Most  drills  are  made  on  the  twist  pattern,  and  it  is 
something  of  a  trick  to  grind  a  twist  drill,  but  anyone 
can  do  it  if  he  tackles  the  job  with  a  determination  to 
do  it  right.  In  grinding  a  twist  drill,  use  a  new  drill 
for  pattern.  Grind  the  angles  the  same  as  the  new 
drill,  and  be  careful  to  have  the  point  in  the  center.  A 
little  practice  will  make  perfect. 

Mechanics  will  say  that  no  one  except  an  expert 
should  attempt  to  grind  a  twist  drill,  but  farmers  who 
are  mechanically  inclined  are  the  best  experts  within 
reach.  It  is  up  to  a  farmer  to  grind  his  own  drills  or 
use  them  dull. 

In  drilling  wrought  iron  either  water  or  oil  is  re- 
quired to  cool  the  drill,  but  cast  iron  and  brass  are 


40 


FARM  MECHANICS 


drilled  dry.  Light  work  such  as  hoop -iron  may  be 
drilled  dry,  but  the  cutting  edge  of  the  drill  will  last 
longer  even  in  light  work  if  the  drill  is  fed  with  oil  or 
water. 


Figure  50. —  (1)  Electric  Drill-Press.  A  small  electric  motor  is 
attached  to  the  drill  spindle.  (2)  Tram  Points.  Two  steel  points 
are  fitted  with  thumbscrew  clamps  to  fasten  them  to  a  long  wooden 
bar.  They  are  used  to  scribe  circles  too  large  for  the  compasses. 
(3)  Ratchet-Brace.  Two  braces,  or  bitstocks,  are  needed.  A  large 
brace  with  a  6"  radius  for  large  bits  and  a  small  brace  with  a  3" 
or  3^"  radius  for  small  bits. 


In  using  drill-presses,  some  extra  attachments  come 
in  very  handy,  such  as  a  screw  clamp  to  hold  short 
pieces  of  metal.     Before  starting  the  drill,  a  center 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


41 


punch  is  used  to  mark  the  center  of  the  hole  to  be  bored 
and  to  start  the  drill  in  the  right  spot. 


Figure  51. — Twist-Drills.     Round   shank  for  the  post   drill   and 
square  taper  shank  for  brace  work.     Brace  drills  are  small,   %"  or 


Figure  52.- 


-Taper  Reamer.    Used  to  enlarge,  or  true,  or  taper  a  hole 
that  has  been  drilled  or  punched. 


Figure  53. — ^Another  style  of  Reamer. 


Figure  54. — Countersink.  This  is  the  old  style,  blacksmith-made, 
flat  countersink.  It  will  do  quick  work  but  not  so  smooth  as  the 
fluted  kind. 


In   doing  particular  work,   the   drill   may  be   re- 
centered  when  it  starts  wrong.     This  is  done  with  a 


42 


FARM  MECHANICS 


small  round-nosed  cold  chisel.  If  the  work  is  not  very 
particular,  the  drill  may  be  turned  a  little  to  one  side 
by  slanting  the  piece  to  be  drilled.  This  plan  is  only 
a  makeshift,  however,  the  proper  way  being  to  block 
the  work  level,  so  that  the  drill  will  meet  it  perpendicu- 
larly. However,  by  starting  carefully,  the  hole  may  be 
bored  exactly  as  required. 

Iro7i  Working  Tools.— Forge  tools  for  a  farm  shop 
need  not  be  numerous.     Several  pairs  of  tongs,  one 


Figure  55. — Machinist's  Hammfers.  A  me- 
dium weight  should  be  selected  for  farm 
repair  work.  It  should  be  hung  so  the  end 
of  the  handle  clears  half  an  inch  when  the 
face  rests  flat  on  the  bench. 


s 


blacksmith  hammer,  one  sledge,  one  hardy,  one 
wooden-handled  cold  chisel,  one  pair  pincers,  one  par- 
ing knife,  one  shoeing  rasp,  and  one  shoeing  hammer 
will  do  to  begin  with. 

Monkey-wrenches  come  first  in  the  wrench  depart- 
ment. The  farmer  needs  three  sizes,  one  may  be  quite 
small,  say  six  inches  in  length,  one  ten  inches,  and  the 
other  large  enough  to  span  a  two-inch  nut.  And  there 
should  be  an  ironclad  rule,  never  use  a  monkey-wrench 
for  a  hammer.  For  work  around  plows,  cultivators, 
harvesters,  and  other  farm  machines,   a  case  of   S 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


43 


Figure  56i — ^(1)  Hardy.  The  anvil  hardy  is  used  more  than  any 
other  anvil  tool  except  the  blacksmith's  hammer  and  tongs.  (2)  A 
Cold-Shut  Link  that  may  be  welded,  riveted  or  simply  pounded  shut. 


1  2  3 

Figure  57. — Calipers:  (1)  A  pair  of  tight-joint  inside  calipers. 
(2)  Its  mate  for  taking  outside  dimensions.  (3)  A  pair  of  spring- 
jointed,  screw-adjustment  inside  calipers  for  machinists'  use. 


Figure  58. — Blacksmith  Tongs.  Straight  tongs  made  to  hold  %" 
iron  is  the  handiest  size.  Two  or  three  pairs  for  larger  sizes  of  iron 
and  one  pair  smaller  come  in  handy. 


44 


FARM  MECHANICS 


wrenches  will  be  greatly  appreciated.  Manufacturers 
include  wrenches  with  almost  all  farm  machines,  but 
such  wrenches  are  too  cheap  to  be  of  much  use. 

For    heavier    work    pipe-wrenches    are    absolutely 
necessary.    The  reason  for  having  so  many  wrenches  is 


Figure  59. —  (1)  Wire  Splicer.  The  oval  openings  in  the  tool  are 
of  different  sizes.  They  are  made  to  hold  two  wires,  close  together, 
with  ends  projecting  in  opposite  directions.  Each  end  is  wound 
around  the  other  wire.  The  ends  are  then  notched  with  a  three- 
cornered  file  and  broken  off  short  and  filed  smooth.  The  splicing 
tool  should  be  thin,  about  %"  or  ^^",  to  bring  the  two  twists  close 
together.  This  is  especially  necessary  in  making  hoops  for  wooden 
pails.  (2)  Blacksmith  Shoeing  Pincers,  used  to  pull  horseshoes. 
They  should  close  together  to  catch  a  nail  by  the  head. 


^ 


^(^ 


Figure  60. —  (1)  Cotter  Pin  Tool.  Handy  for  inserting  or  remov- 
ing all  sorts  of  cotter  keys.  (2)  Nest  of  S  Wrenches  of  different 
sizes.  Farmers  have  never  appreciated  the  value  of  light,  handy 
wrenches  to  fit  all  sorts  of  nuts  and  bolt  heads  closely. 

to  save  time  when  in  the  field.  It  often  happens  that 
men  and  horses  stand  idle  waiting  for  what  should  be 
a  quick  repair  job. 

For  bench  work  a  riveting  hammer  and  a  ball  pene 
machinist 's  hammer  are  needed.  A  nest  of  S  wrenches, 
two  rivet  sets,  cold  chisels,  round  punches  and  several 
files  also  are  required. 


THE  FARM   SHOP 


45 


The  same  twist  drills  up  to  three-eighths-inch  will 
do  for  iron  as  well  as  wood.  However,  if  much  drilling 
is  done,  then  round  shank  twist  drills  to  fit  the  drill 
chuck  will  work  better.  Farmers  seldom  drill  holes  in 
iron  larger  than  one-half  inch.  For  particular  work, 
to  get  the  exact  size,  reamers  are  used  to  finish  the 


Figure  61. — Hack  Saw.  One  handle  and  a  dozen  blades.  The 
frame  should  be  stiff  enough  either  to  push  or  pull  the  saw  without 
binding.     The  teeth  may  point  either  way  to  suit  the  work  in  hand. 


Figure  62. — ^Powerful  Bolt  Cutter.     It  is  intended  for  factory  use. 


holes  after  drilling.  Screw  holes  in  iron  are  counter- 
sunk in  the  drill-press. 

For  small  work,  twist  drills  with  square  shanks  for 
brace  use  should  range  in  sizes  from  one  thirty-second 
of  an  inch  up  to  one-quarter  inch,  then  every  one- 
sixteenth  inch  up  to  one-half  inch. 

For  boring  screw  holes  in  wood  the  quickest  work  is 
done  with  pod  bits.  Not  many  sizes  are  needed,  but 
they  are  cheap,  so  that  a  half  dozen,  ranging  from  one- 
sixteenth  to  one-quarter  inch  or  thereabouts,  will  be 
found  very  useful.    Pod  bits  belong  to  the  wood  de- 


46 


FARM  MECHANICS 


partment,  but  on  account  of  being  used  principally  for 
screw  sinking,  they  are  just  as  useful  in  the  iron  work- 
ing department  as  in  the  carpenter  shop. 

Sheet  metal  snips  for  cutting  sheet  metal  properly 
belong  with  the  iron  working  tools.  Snips  are  from 
ten  to  fourteen  inches  in  length.  A  medium  size  is 
best  for  miscellaneous  work.    If  kept  in  good  working 


Figure  63. — Cutting  Nippers.  For  cutting  the  points  from  horse- 
shoe nails  after  they  are  driven  through  the  hoof  to  hold  the  shoe 
in  place.  These  nippers  are  hard  tempered  and  should  not  be  used 
for  any  other  purpose. 


Figure  64. — Two   Shapes  of   Steel  Crowbars. 


order  twelve-inch  snips  will  cut  18-gauge  galvanized 
or  black  iron.  But  a  man  would  not  care  to  do  a  great 
deal  of  such  heavy  cutting. 

Pipe-Fitting  Tools. — Recent  farm  improvements  re- 
quire a  few  tools  that  rightfully  belong  to  plumbers. 
Every  farm  has  some  kind  of  water  supply  for  domes- 
tic use  and  for  live-stock.  A  great  many  farm  ma- 
chines require  pipe  tools  for  repair  work.  Every  year 
more  plumbing  reaches  the  farm. 

Plumbing  work  is  no  more  difficult  than  other  me- 
chanical work,  if  the  tools  are  at  hand  to  meet  the  dif- 


THE  FARM  SHOP 


47 


ferent  requirements.  One  job  of  plumbing  that  used 
to  stand  out  as  an  impossibility  was  the  soldering  to- 
gether of  lead  pipes,  technically  termed  ''wiping  a 
joint.''  This  operation  has  been  discontinued.  Every 
possible  connection  required  in  farm  plumbing  is  now 
provided  for  in  standardized  fittings.  Every  pipe-fit- 
ting or  connection  that  conducts  supply  water  or  waste 


Figure  65. —  (1)  Pipe  Vise.  Hinged  to  open  for  long  pipes.  (2) 
Machinist's  Vise.  Made  with  a  turntable  to  take  any  horizontal 
angle.     The  pipe  jaws  are  removable. 


water  nowadays  screws  together.  Sizes  are  all  made  to 
certain  standards  and  the  couplings  are  almost  per- 
fect, so  that  work  formerly  shrouded  in  mystery  or 
hidden  under  trade  secrets  is  now  open  to  every 
schoolboy  who  has  learned  to  read. 

The  necessary  outfit  to  handle  all  the  piping  and 
plumbing  on  the  farm  is  not  very  expensive,  probably 
$25.00  will  include  every  tool  and  all  other  appliances 
necessary  to  put  in  all  the  piping  needed  to  carry  water 
to  the  watering  troughs  and  to  supply  hot  and  cold 


48 


FARM  MECHANICS 


water  to  the  kitchen  and  the  bathroom,  together  with 
the  waste  pipes,  ventilators  and  the  sewer  to  the  septic 
tank.  The  same  outfit  of  tools  will  answer  for  repair 
work  for  a  lifetime. 

Farm  water  pipes  usually  are  small.    There  may  be 
a  two-inch  suction  pipe  to  the  force  pump,  and  the  dis- 


Figure  66. — Pipe  Cutter.  The  most  satisfactory  pipe  cutter  has 
three  knife-edge  roller  cutters  which  follow  each  other  around  the 
pipe.  Some  of  these  cutters  have  two  flat  face  rollers  and  one  cutter 
roller  to  prevent  raising  a  burr  on  the  end  of  the  pipe.  The  flat  face 
rollers  iron  out  the  burr  and  leave  the  freshly  cut  pipe  the  same  size 
clear  to  the  end. 


Figure  67. — Pipe-Wrench.  This  type  of  wrench  is  valuable  for 
working  with  the  heavier  farm  implements.  It  is  intended  more  for 
holding  than  for  turning.  It  is  rather  rough  on  nuts.  Damaged 
nuts  show  signs  of  careless  work. 


charge  may  be  one  and  a  half  inch.  But  these  pipes  are 
not  likely  to  make  trouble. 

There  should  be  a  good  pipe  vise  that  will  hold  any 
size  pipe  up  to  three  inches.  At  least  two  pipe  wrenches 
are  needed  and  they  should  be  adjustable  from  one- 
quarter-inch  up  to  two-inch  pipe. 

We  must  remember  that  water  pipe  sizes  mean  in- 
side measurements.  One-inch  pipe  is  about  one  and 
one-quarter  inches  outside  diameter.     Three-quarter- 


THE  FARM  SHOP  49 

inch  pipe  is  about  one  inch  outside.  Two-inch  pipe  will 
carry  four  times  as  much  water  as  one-inch  pipe,  under 
the  rule  ^  ^  doubling  the  diameter  increases  the  capacity 
four  times/' 

The  three-wheel  pipe  cutter  works  quickly  and  is 
satisfactory  for  most  jobs.    Sometimes  two  of  the  knife 


Figure  68. — A  smaller  sized  wrench  with  wooden  handle. 

wheels  are  removed  and  rollers  substituted  to  prevent 
raising  a  burr  on  the  end  of  the  pipe. 

Threading  dies  are  made  in  standard  sizes.  A  good 
farm  set  consists  of  stock  and  dies  to  thread  all  the 
different  sizes  of  pipe  from  one-quarter  inch  to  one 
inch,  inclusive.  Not  many  pipes  larger  than  inch  are 
threaded  on  the  farm.  They  are  cut  to  the  proper 
lengths  in  the  farm  shop  and  the  threads  are  cut  in 
town. 


CHAPTER  II 

FARM  SHOP  WORK 
PROFITABLE  HOME  REPAIR  WORK 

Each  farmer  must  be  the  judge  in  regard  to  the  kind 
of  mechanical  repair  work  that  should  be  done  at  home 
and  the  kind  and  amount  of  repair  work  that  should 
go  to  the  shop  in  town.    A  great  deal  depends  on  the 


Figure  69. — Logging  Chain.  One  of  the  cleverest  farm  inventions 
of  any  age  is  the  logging  chain.  It  is  universally  used  in  all  lumber 
camps  and  on  every  farm.  It  usually  is  from  16  to  20  feet  in  length, 
with  a  round  hook  on  one  end  for  the  slip  hitch  and  a  grab  hook 
on  the  other  end  that  makes  fast  between  any  two  links. 

mechanical  ability  of  the  farmer  or  his  helpers.  How- 
ever, the  poorest  farm  mechanic  can  do  *^  first  aid^' 
service  to  farm  implements  and  machinery  in  the  nick 
of  time,  if  he  is  so  disposed.  A  great  many  farmers  are 
helpless  in  this  respect  because  they  want  to  be  help- 
less. It  is  so  much  easier  to  let  it  go  than  to  go  right  at 
it  with  a  determination  to  fix  it,  and  fix  it  right. 

50 


FARM   SHOP  WORK 


51 


On  general  principles,  however,  farm  repair  work 
should  not  occupy  a  farmer 's  time  to  the  detriment  of 
growing  crops  or  the  proper  care  of  live-stock.  Farm- 
ing is  the  business ;  mechanical  work  is  a  side  issue.    At 


Figure  70. — Neckyoke  and  Whiffletree  Irons.  Farmers  can  make 
better  neckyokes  and  whiffletrees  than  they  can  buy  ready-made. 
The  irons  may  be  bought  separately  and  the  wood  selected  piece  by 
piece. 


Figure  71. — Measuring  a  Worn  Skein  for  a  New  Boxing.  The 
pasteboard  calipers  are  cut  to  fit  the  old  skein  sideways  because  it  is 
probably  flattened  on  the  bottom  from  wear. 


the  same  time,  a  farmer  so  inclined  can  find  time  dur- 
ing the  year  to  look  over  every  farm  machine,  every 
implement  and  every  hand  tool  on  the  farm.  The 
stupidest  farm  helper  can  clean  the  rust  off  of  a 
spade  and  rub  the  surface  with  an  oily  cloth,  in  which 
some  fine  emery  has  been  dusted.    The  emery  will  re- 


52 


FARM  MECHANICS 


move  the  rust  and  the  oil  will  prevent  it  from  further 
rusting.  Every  laborer  knows  better  than  to  use  a 
spade  or  shovel  after  a  rivet  head  has  given  way  so  the 
handle  is  not  properly  supported  by  the  plate  exten- 
sions. There  really  is  no  excuse  for  using  tools  or  ma- 
chinery that  are  out  of  repair,  but  the  extent  to  which 


Figure  72. — Wooden  Wagon  Axles.     Axle  timber  may  be  bought  in 
the  rough  or  partly  fitted  to  the  skeins. 


IT 


Figure  73. — Showing  how  to  fit  the  irons  on  the  forward  end  of 
wagon  reach. 


m\\iui\iiiiMii    mw 


w^ 


Figure  74.- 


-Wire  Splice.     With  a  little  practice  wire  may  be  wound 
close  enough  to  prevent  slipping. 


a  farmer  can  profitably  do  his  own  repairing  depends 
on  many  contingencies.  In  every  case  he  must  decide 
according  to  circumstances,  always,  however,  with  a 
desire  and  determination  to  run  his  farm  on  business 
principles. 

Home-made  Bolts, — The  easiest  way  to  make  a  bolt 
is  to  cut  a  rod  of  round  iron  the  proper  length  and  run 
a  thread  on  each  end.  On  one  end  the  thread  may  be 
just  long  enough  to  rivet  the  head,  while  the  thread  on 


FARM   SHOP  WORK 


53 


the  other  end  is  made  longer  to  accommodate  the  nut 
and  to  take  up  slack.  A  farmer  needs  round  iron  in 
sizes  from  one-fourth  inch  to  five-eighths  inch.  He  will 
use  more  three-eighths  and  one-half  inch  than  any- 
other  sizes.    Blank  nuts  are  made  in  standard  sizes  to 

Parts  to  Make  Bolt 
(Nuts  and  Threaded  Rod) 


Rod 
Rivited 


Figure  75. — Emergency  Bolts.  A  bolt  may  be  made  quickly  with- 
out a  forge  fire  by  cutting  a  short  thread  on  one  end  for  the  head 
and  a  longer  thread  on  the  other  end  for  the  nut. 


Figure  76. — Rivets.    A  stock  of  soft  iron  rivets  of  different  sizes  and 
lengths  should  be  always  kept  on  hand  ready  for  immediate  use. 


fit  any  size  of  round  iron.  Have  an  assortment,  in  dif- 
ferent sizes,  of  both  the  square  and  the  hexagon  nuts. 
To  make  a  bolt  in  the  ordinary  way  requires  weld- 
ing, but  for  repair  work  in  a  hurry  it  is  better  to  select 
the  proper  iron  and  cut  it  to  the  required  length 
either  with  a  cold  chisel  in  the  vise,  or  with  a  hardy 
and  a  handled  cold  chisel  over  an  anvil.    The  quickest 


54 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Figure  77. — Rivets. 


Figure  78. — Rivet  Set.  This  style  of  set  is  used  for  small  rivets. 
The  size  should  be  selected  to  fit  the  rivets  closely.  Larger  rivets  are 
made  to  bug  the  work  by  means  of  a  flat  piece  of  steel  with  a  hole 
through  it. 


Figure  79. — ^Rivet  Set. 


Figure  80. — i(l)  Coulter  Clamp.  Plow-beam  clamps  should  be 
made  in  the  farm  shop  to  fit  each  plow.  (2)  Garden  Weeder.  The 
quickest  hand  killer  of  young  weeds  in  the  garden  is  a  flat  steel 
blade  that  works  horizontally  half  an  inch  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 


FARM   SHOP  WORK 


Figure  81. — Stock  and  Dies.    Taps  and  dies  and  stocks  are  best  kept 
in  compartments  in  a  case  made  for  the  purpose. 


Figure  82. — Stock  for  Round  Dies.  The  opening  is  turned  true 
and  sized  accurately  to  fit.  The  screw  applies  pressure  to  hold  the 
die  by  friction. 


„/\AA/vAAA/\'V^/-v~^-v-< 


=-v»,#^^s#^.A#>*^**^**^'»^>«'*^ 


Figure  83. — Taps  and  Dies.  Standard  threads  are  tapped  into 
blank  nuts  and  corresponding  threads  are  cut  onto  bolts  with  ac- 
curacy and  rapidity  by  using  this  style  taps  and  dies.  They  may  be 
had  in  all  sizes.  The  range  for  farm  work  should  cut  from  M"  to 
%",  inclusive. 


56 


FARM  MECHANICS 


way  of  cutting  that  mashes  the  rod  the  least  is  to  be 
preferred.  The  size  of  the  rod  will  determine  the  man- 
ner of  cutting  in  most  instances. 


Figure  84. — Taper  Tap  for  Blacksmith's  Use. 


"^^ 


^ 


Figure  85. — Machine  Bolt  and  Carriage  Bolt.  The  first  is  used 
against  iron  and  the  second  against  wood,  but  this  rule  is  not  arbi- 
trary. The  rounded  side  of  the  nuts  are  turned  in  against  wood  ; 
the  flat  side  against  washers  or  heavier  iron.  Use  square  head  bolts 
If  you  expect  to  take  them  out  after  the  nuts  have  rusted  on. 


Figure  86. — Plow  bolts  and  sickle  bar  bolts  should  be  kept  in 
stock.  Standard  sizes  and  shapes  are  made  for  several  different 
makes  of  plows  and  machines. 


Taps  and  dies  are  made  to  fit  each  size  of  rod.  If  the 
thread  on  the  bolt  is  cut  with  a  solid,  or  round,  plate 
die,  the  corresponding  tap  is  run  clear  through  the 
nut.  In  that  case  the  nut  will  screw  on  the  bolt  easily, 
possibly  a  little  loose  for  some  purposes.  It  is  so  in- 
tended by  the  manufacturers  to  give  the  workman  a 


FARM   SHOP  WORK 


57 


little  leeway.  If  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  nut  screw 
on  the  bolt  very  tight,  then  the  tap  is  stopped  before 
the  last  thread  enters  the  nut.    A  little  practice  soon 


Figure  87.^Lag  Screw.     To  set  a  lag  screw  in  hardwood,  bore  a  hole 
the  size  of  the  screw  shank  as  calipered  between  the  threads. 


Figure  88. —  (1)  Wagon-Box  Irons,  showing  how  to  attach  the  box 
and  the  rave  to  the  cross-piece  and  to  brace  the  side  of  the  box  to 
hold  it  upright.  There  may  be  several  of  these  braces  on  each  side 
of  the  wagon  box.  (2)  U  Bolt  in  Cement.  A  solid  staple  to  be  em- 
bedded in  concrete  for  a  horse  ring,  door  hinge,  cow  stanchion,  etc. 


58 


FARM  MECHANICS 


qualifies  a  workman  to  fit  a  nut  according  to  the  place 
the  bolt  is  to  occupy. 

Generally  it  is  desirable  to  have  nuts  fit  very  snug 
on  parts  of  machines  that  shake  a  good  deal,  and  this 
applies  to  almost  all  farm  machinery  and  implements. 

Ordinarily  a  horse  rake  is  supposed  to  travel  steadily 
along  like  a  cart,  but  the  ground  is  rough  and  in  practi- 


Figure  89. — Wagon-Box  Brace.  It  is  offset  to  hold  the  rave  and 
to  brace  the  sideboard  at  the  rear  and  the  front  ends  and  some- 
times in  the  middle  of  light  wagon  beds. 


Figure  90. — Two  Plow  Clevises  and  a  Plow  Link. 


cal  use  the  nuts  loosen  almost  as  soon  as  haying  com- 
mences. 

Some  farmers  make  a  practice  of  riveting  bolt  ends 
to  prevent  nuts  from  working  loose.  When  the  bolts 
have  square  heads,  this  practice  is  not  objectionable, 
because  with  two  wrenches  a  nut.  can  be  twisted  off 
over  the  riveting,  but  a  great  many  bolts  have  round 
heads  and  very  short,  square  shanks.  Theoretically, 
the  shanks  are  driven  into  the  wood  firm  enough  to 
prevent    the    bolts    from    turning.      Practically    this 


FARM  SHOB  WORK  59 

theory  is  a  delusion  and  a  snare,  as  every  farm  boy  can 
testify. 

Bolts  are  not  manufactured  in  quantities  in  the  farm 
blacksmith  shop.  They  can  be  made  by  machinery 
cheaper,  but  so  many  times  a  bolt  is  needed  on  short 
notice  that  the  farm  shop  should  have  the  necessary 
tools  and  materials  to  supply  the  need  quickly. 

Forging  Iron  and  Steel. — Iron  and  steel  are  com- 
posed of  the  same  properties,  but  differ  chemically. 
Steel  also  is  finer  grained  than  iron  and  it  requires 
different  treatment.  Iron  should  be  forged  at  a  light- 
red  or  white  heat.  If  forged  at  a  dark-red  heat  the 
iron  generally  will  granulate  or  crack  open  and  weaken 
the  metal.  For  a  smooth  finish  the  last  forging  may 
be  done  at  a  dark-red  heat,  but  the  hammer  must  be 
used  lightly.  The  weight  of  the  hammer  as  well  as  the 
blows  also  must  differ  with  the  different  size  of  iron 
under  heat.  Small  sizes  should  be  treated  with  ham- 
mer blows  that  are  rather  light,  while  for  large  sizes 
the  blows  should  be  correspondingly  heavy.  If  light 
blows  be  given  with  a  light  hammer  in  forging  heavy 
iron  the  outside  alone  will  be  affected,  thus  causing 
itneven  tension  and  contrarywise  strain  in  the  iron. 

Steel  should  never  be  heated  above  a  yellow  heat.  If 
heated  to  a  white  heat  the  steel  will  be  burned.  Steel 
should  never  be  forged  at  a  dark-red  heat.  If  this  is 
done  it  will  cause  considerable  strain  between  the  inner 
and  outer  portions,  which  may  cause  it  to  crack  while 
forging.  The  weight  of  the  hammer  and  the  hammer 
blows  in  forging  of  steel  is  vastly  of  more  importance 
than  in  forging  iron.  If  the  blow  or  the  hammer  is  not 
heavy  enough  to  exert  its  force  throughout  the  thick- 
ness of  the  steel  it  will  probably  crack  in  the  process  of 
hardening  or  tempering.    If  steel  be  properly  forged  it 


60  FARM  MECHANICS 

will  harden  easily  and  naturally,  but  if  improperly 
forged  the  tempering  will  be  very  difficult — probably  a 
failure.  The  quality  of  a  finished  tool  depends  greatly 
upon  the  correct  heat  and  proper  method  used  in  forg- 
ing and  hardening  it. 

.  Making  Steel  Tools. — Steel  for  tools  should  first  be 
annealed  to  even  the  density  and  prevent  warping. 
This  is  done  by  heating  it  to  a  dull  cherry  red  in  a  slow 
fire.  A  charcoal  fire  for  this  purpose  is  best  because  it 
contains  no  sulphur  or  other  injurious  impurities. 
After  heating  the  piece  of  new  steel  all  over  as  evenly 
as  possible  it  should  be  buried  several  inches  deep  in 
powdered  charcoal  and  left  to  cool.  This  completes  the 
annealing  process.  While  working  steel  into  proper 
shape  for  tools,  great  care  is  required  to  prevent  burn- 
ing. It  should  be  worked  quickly  and  the  process  re- 
peated as  often  as  necessary.  Practice  is  the  only 
recipe  for  speed. 

When  the  tool  is  shaped  as  well  as  possible  on  the 
anvil  it  is  then  finished  with  a  file  by  clamping  the  new 
tool  in  the  vise,  using  single  cut  files.  Bastard  files  are 
too  rough  for  tool  steel.  After  the  tool  is  shaped  by 
cross-filing  and  draw-filing  to  make  it  smooth  it  is  some- 
times polished  by  wrapping  fine  emery  cloth  around 
the  file.  Oil  is  used  with  emery  cloth  to  give  the  steel 
a  luster  finish.  Tempering  is  the  last  process  in  the 
making  of  such  tools  as  cold  chisels,  drills,  dies, 
punches,  scratchawls,  etc. 

Tempering  Steel  Tools. — Good  judgment  is  required 
to  get  the  right  temper.  Good  eyesight  is  needed  to 
catch  the  color  at  the  exact  instant,  and  quick  action  to 
plunge  it  into  the  water  before  it  cools  too  much.  Dies 
are  made  very  hard.  The  color  of  the  steel  at  dipping 
time  should  be  a  bright  straw  color.    Cold  chisels  will 


FARM  SHOP  WORK 


61 


Figure  91. — Blacksmith  Hammers.  Some  smiths  use  a  heavy  ma- 
chinist's hammer.  But  the  flat  peen  is  more  useful  when  working 
around  the  anvil  and  the  leg  vise. 


62  FARM  MECHANICS 

break  when  being  used  if  tempered  too  hard.  If  cold 
chisels  are  to  be  used  for  cutting  iron,  the  color  should 
be  violet ;  if  the  chisels  are  for  cutting  stone,  purple  is 
the  color.  Drills  for  boring  iron  are  tempered  a  dark 
straw  color  at  the  cutting  edge  merging  back  into  blue. 
The  water  in  the  dipping  tub  should  be  warm,  as  steel 
is  likely  to  check  or  crack  when  it  is  tempered  in  cold 
water. 

Tool  steel  should  be  held  in  a  perpendicular  position 
when  it  enters  the  water  to  cool  all  sides  alike.  Other- 
wise the  new  tool  might  warp.  It  is  better  to  dip 
slowly,  sometimes  holding  the  point,  or  cutting  edge,  in 
the  water  while  permitting  the  shank  to  cool  slowly 
enough  to  remain  soft.  Some  sizes  of  steel  may  be 
tempered  too  hard  at  first  and  the  temper  immediately 
drawn  by  permitting  the  heat  of  the  shank  to  follow 
down  almost  to  the  edge,  then  dip.  This  is  done 
quickly  while  watching  the  colors  as  they  move  to- 
wards the  point  or  edge. 

Draw-filing. — Making  six-sided  and  eight-sided 
punches  and  scratchawls  out  of  hexagon  and  octagon 
tool  steel  is  interesting  work.  The  steel  is  cut  to  length 
by  filing  a  crease  all  around  with  a  three-cornered  file. 
When  it  is  sufficiently  notched,  the  steel  will  break 
straight  across.  To  shape  the  tool  and  to  draw  out  the 
point  the  steel  is  heated  in  the  forge  to  a  dull  cherry 
red  and  hammered  carefully  to  preserve  the  shape 
along  the  taper.  Special  attention  must  be  given  to 
the  numerous  corners.  A  scratchawl  or  small  punch, 
must  be  heated  many  times  and  hammered  quickly  be- 
fore cooling.  An  old  English  shop  adage  reads: 
'  ^  Only  one  blacksmith  ever  went  to  the  devil  and  that 
was  for  pounding  cold  iron." 

After  the  punch  or  scratchawl  is  roughed  out  on  the 


FARM   SHOP  WORK 


63 


anvil,  it  is  fastened  in  the  vise  and  finished  by  cross- 
filing  and  draw-filing.     Copper  caps  on  the  vise  jaws 
,  will  prevent  indentations. 

Draw-filing  means  grasping  each  end  of  the  file  and 
moving  it  back  and  forth  sidewise  along  the  work.  For 


Figure  92. — Vise  Jaw  Guards.     Soft  auxiliary  vise  jaws  are  made  of 
sheet  copper  or  galvanized  iron. 


Turn  Piece  M 
while  uding 

"7 


ilMHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIlliiliiiiiiiMiiinnifTni 

Clamp  Block, 
in  Vise 


^""""""-"""■■"ITMnH 


(61 DE  VIEW) 


i  Bi&JL 


Figure  93. — Roll  Filing.    To  file  a  piece  6t  steel  round  it  is  rolled  by 
one  hand  while  the  file  is  used  by  the  other  hand. 


this  purpose  single-cut  files  are  used.  The  smoothing 
is  done  with  a  very  fine  single-cut  file,  or  if  very  par- 
ticular, a  float  file  is  used.  Then  the  polish  is  rubbed 
on  with  fine  emery  cloth  and  oil.  The  emery  cloth  is 
wrapped  around  the  file  and  the  same  motion  is  con- 
tinued.    With  some  little  practice  a  very  creditable 


64  FARM  MECHANICS 

piece  of  work  may  be  turned  out.  Such  work  is  valu- 
able because  of  the  instruction.  A  good  test  of  skill  at 
blacksmithing  is  making  an  octagon  punch  that  tapers 
true  to  the  eye  when  finished. 

Set-Screws, — It  is  customary  to  fasten  a  good  many 
gear  wheels,  cranks  and  pulleys  to  machinery  shafts 
by  set-screws.  There  are  two  kinds  of  set-screws ;  one 
has  a  cone  point,  the  other  a  cup  end.  Both  screws  are 
hardened  to  sink  into  the  shaft.  A  cup  is  supposed  to 
cut  a  ring  and  the  point  is  supposed  to  sink  into  the 
shaft  to  make  a  small  hole  sufficient  to  keep  the  wheel 


Figure  94. — Machine-Bolt  and  Set-Screw.  The  bolt  to  the  left  is 
used  to  clamp  cylinder  heads  in  place.  The  set-screw  to  the  right  is 
the  cup  variety.  The  end  is  countersunk  to  form  a  cup  with  a 
sharp  rim. 

from  slipping.  However,  unless  the  cone-pointed  screw 
is  countersunk  into  the  shaft,  it  will  not  hold  much  of 
a  strain.  The  point  is  so  small  it  will  slip  and  cut  a 
groove  around  the  shaft.  To  prevent  this,  the  set-screw 
may  be  countersunk  by  first  marking  the  shaft  with  an 
indentation  of  the  point  of  the  screw.  Then  the  wheel  * 
or  crank  or  collar  may  be  removed  and  a  hole  drilled 
into  the  shaft  with  a  twist-drill  the  same  size,  or  a 
sixty-fourth  smaller,  than  the  set-screw.  Then  by 
forcing  the  end  of  the  set-screw  into  the  drill  hole,  the 
wheel  is  held  solid. 

The  principal  objection  to  set-screws  is  that  they  are  ^ 
dangerous.     The  heads  always  project  and  are  ready 
to  catch  a  coat  sleeve  when  the  shaft  is  revolving.    In 
all  cases,  set-screws  should  be  as  large  as  the  hub  will 


FARM  SHOP  WORK  65 

allow,  and  it  is  better  to  have  them  protected  so  it  is  im- 
possible to  catch  anything  to  wind  around  the  shaft. 
Cup  set-screws  are  not  satisfactory  except  for  very 
light  work.  If  necessary  to  use  them,  the  ends  may  be 
firmly  fixed  by  cutting  a  ring  with  a  sharp,  diamond- 
point  cold  chisel. 

Setting  the  Handsaw. — Nine  teeth  to  the  inch  is  the 
most  satisfactory  handsaw  for  all  kinds  of  lumber. 
Setting  the  teeth  of  this  kind  of  saw  is  best  done  with 
a  hand  lever  set.  The  plunger  pin  should  be  care- 
fully adjusted  to  bend  the  teeth  just  far  enough  to  give 
the  necessary  set.  For  general  wcTrk  a  saw  needs  more 
set  than  is  needed  for  kiln-dried  stuff.  The  teeth 
should  cut  a  kerf  just  wide  enough  to  clear  the  blade. 
Anything  more  is  a  waste  of  time  and  muscle.  It  is 
better  to  work  from  both  sides  of  the  saw  by  first  set- 
ting one  side  the  whole  length  of  the  blade.  Then  re- 
verse the  saw  in  the  clamp  and  set  the  alternate  teeth 
in  the  same  manner.  There  should  be  a  good  solid  stop 
between  the  handles  of  the  set  to  insure  equal  pressure 
against  each  sawtooth.  The  pin  should  be  carefully 
placed  against  each  tooth  at  exactly  the  same  spot 
every  time  and  the  pressure  should  be  the  same  for  each 
tooth. 

The  best  saw-sets  for  fine  tooth  saws  are  automatic 
so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them  so,  but  the  skill 
of  the  operator  determines  the  quality  of  the  work. 
The  reason  for  setting  a  saw  before  jointing  is  to  leave 
the  flattened  ends  of  the  teeth  square  with  the  blade 
after  the  jointing  and  filing  is  completed. 

Jointing  a  Handsaw. — After  the  saw  has  been  set  it 
must  be  jointed  to  square  the  teeth  and  to  even  them  to 
equal  length,  and  to  keep  the  saw  straight  on  the  cut- 
ting edge.    Some  woodworkers  give  their  saws  a  slight 


66 


FARM  MECHANICS 


camber,  or  belly,  to  correspond  with  the  sway-back. 
The  camber  facilitates  cutting  to  the  bottom  in  mitre- 
box  work  without  sawing  into  the  bed  piece  of  the  box. 
It  also  throws  the  greatest  weight  of  the  thrust  upon 
the  middle  teeth.  A  saw  with  even  teeth  cuts  smoother, 
runs  truer  and  works  faster  than  a  saw  filed  by  guess. 
It  is  easy  to  file  a  saw  when  all  of  the  teeth  are  the  same 


^Oldnic 
r— R  ivet  to  Prevent 
5plltting  of  Block 


Figure  95. — Saw  Jointer.  The  wooden  block  is  about  two  inches 
square  by  12"  or  14"  in  length.  The  block  is  made  true  and  scribed 
carefully  to  have  the  ripsaw  slot  square,  straight  and  true.  The 
file  is  set  into  a  mortise  square  with  the  block. 

length  and  all  have  the  same  set.  Anyone  can  do  a 
good  job  of  filing  if  the  saw  is  made  right  to  begin  with, 
but  no  one  can  put  a  saw  in  good  working  order  with 
a  three-cornered  file  as  his  only  tool. 

Filing  the  Handsaw. — First  comes  the  three-cor- 
nered file.  It  should  be  just  large  enough  to  do  the 
work.  There  is  no  economy  in  buying  larger  files 
thinking  that  each  of  the  three  corners  will  answer  the 
same  purpose  as  a  whole  file  of  smaller  size.  In  the 
first  place  the  small  file  is  better  controlled  and  will 
do  better  work.  In  the  second  place  the  three  corners 
are  needed  to  gum  the  bottoms  of  the  divisions  between 


FARM   SHOP  WORK  -  67 

the  teeth.  There  is  much  more  wear  on  the  corners 
than  on  the  sides  of  a  saw-file.  Also  the  corners  of  a 
small  file  are  more  acute,  which  means  a  good  deal  in 
the  shape  of  the  finished  teeth. 

After  the  saw  is  carefully  set  and  jointed,  clamp  it 
in  the  saw  vise  and  file  one  side  of  the  saw  from  heel 
to  point.  Then  reverse  the  saw  in  the  saw  clamp  and 
file  the  other  side,  being  careful  to  keep  the  bevel  of 
each  tooth  the  same.  It  is  better  to  stop  filing  just  be- 
fore the  tooth  comes  to  a  point.  A  triangular  or  dia- 
mond shaped  point  will  cut  faster  and  leave  a  smoother 
saw  kerf  and  last  longer  than  a  needle  point. 

As  the  tooth  of  a  crosscut  saw  is  filed  away  from  both 
edges,  it  is  necessary  to  make  allowances  when  filing 
the  first  side,  otherwise  some  of  the  teeth  will  come  to 
a  sharp  point  before  the  gumming  is  deep  enough. 

Using  a  Handsaw, — Anyone  can  saw  a  board  square 
both  up  and  down  and  crossways  by  following  a  few 
simple  rules.  Have  the  board  supported  on  the  level 
by  two  'v\rell  made  saw-benches  24''  high.  Stand  up 
straight  as  possible  and  look  down  on  both  sides  of 
the  saw  blade.  Use  long  even  strokes  and  let  the  saw 
play  lightly  and  evenly  through  the  saw  cut. 

Do  not  cut  the  mark  out ;  cut  to  it  on  the  waste  end, 
or  further  end,  if  there  are  more  pieces  to  be  cut  from 
the  board.  The  saw  kerf  is  about  3/32"  wide  for  a 
nine-tooth  saw  set  for  unkilned  lumber  or  dimension 
stuff.  If  both  saw  kerfs  are  taken  from  one  piece  and 
none  from  the  next  then  one  length  will  be  3/16" 
shorter  than  the  other. 

For  practice  it  is  a  good  plan  to  make  two  marks 
3/32"  apart  and  cut  between  them.  Use  a  sharp- 
pointed  scratchawl  to  make  the  marks.  A  penknife 
blade  is  next  best,  but  it  must  be  held  flat  against  the 


68  FARM  MECHANICS 

blade  of  the  square,  otherwise  it  will  crowd  in  or  run 
off  at  a  tangent. 

Setting  a  Circular  Saw. — ^A  good  saw-set  for  a  cir- 
cular saw  may  be  made  out  of  an  old  worn-out  flat  file. 
Heat  the  file  in  the  forge  fire  to  draw  the  temper  and 
anneal  it  by  covering  it  with  ashes.  Smooth  it  on  the 
grindstone.  Put  it  in  the  vise  and  file  a  notch  in  one 
edge.  The  notch  should  be  just  wide  enough  to  fit 
loosely  over  the  point  of  a  sawtooth.  The  notch  should 
be  just  deep  enough  to  reach  down  one-quarter  of  the 
length  of  the  tooth. 

Make  a  saw-set  gauge  out  of  a  piece  of  flat  iron  or 
steel  one  inch  wide  and  about  four  inches  long.  File  a 
notch  into  and  parallel  to  one  edge  at  one  corner,  about 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  deep  from  the  edge  and  about 
half  an  inch  long  measuring  from  the  end.  With  the 
homemade  saw-set  bend  the  saw  teeth  outward  until  the 
points  just  miss  the  iron  gauge  in  the  corner  notch. 
The  edges  of  the  gauge  should  be  straight  and  parallel 
and  the  notch  should  be  parallel  with  the  edge.  In  use 
the  edge  of  the  gauge  is  laid  against  the  side  of  the  saw 
so  the  projecting  tooth  reaches  into  the  notch.  One- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  may  be  too  much  set  for  a  small 
saw  but  it  won't  be  too  much  for  a  24-inch  wood  saw 
working  in  green  cord  wood. 

Jointing  a  Circular  Saw. — Eun  the  saw  at  full  speed. 
Lay  a  14-inch  file  flat  on  the  top  of  the  saw  table  at 
right  angles  to  the  saw.  Move  the  file  slowly  and  care- 
fully towards  the  saw  until  it  ticks  against  the  teeth. 
Hold  the  file  firmly  by  both  ends  until  each  sawtooth 
ticks  lightly  against  the  file.  A  saw  in  good  working 
order  needs  very  little  jointing,  but  it  should  have  at- 
tention every  time  the  saw  is  set  and  it  should  be  done 
after  setting  and  before  filing. 


FARM  SHOP  WORK  69 

Filing  a  Circular  Saw, — The  teeth  of  a  crosscut  cir- 
cular saw  point  a  little  ahead.  Sometimes  they  point 
so  nearly  straight  out  from  the  center  that  you  have  to 
look  twice  to  determine  which  way  the  saw  should  run. 
There  are  plenty  of  rules  for  the  pitch  of  sawteeth,  but 
they  are  subject  to  many  qualifications.  What  inter- 
ests a  farmer  is  a  saw  that  will  cut  green  poles  and 
crooked  limbs  into  stove  lengths  with  the  least  possible 
delay.  A  saw  20  inches  in  diameter  will  cut  a  stick 
eight  inches  through  without  turning  it  to  finish  the 
cut.  The  front  or  cutting  edges  of  the  teeth  of  a  24- 
inch  crosscut  circular  saw  for  wood  sawing  should  line 
to  a  point  a  little  back  from  the  center.  This  may  not 
sound  definite  enough  for  best  results,  so  the  more  par- 
ticular farmers  may  use  a  straight  edge.  Select  a 
straight  stick  about  half  an  inch  square.  Rest  it  on 
top  of  or  against  the  back  of  the  saw  mandrel  and 
shape  the  forward  edges  of  the  teeth  on  a  line  with  the 
upper  side  or  rear  side  of  the  straight  edge.  The  teeth 
will  stand  at  the  proper  pitch  when  the  saw  is  new, 
if  it  was  designed  for  sawing  green  wood.  If  it  works 
right  before  being  filed,  then  the  width  of  the  straight 
edge  may  be  made  to  conform  to  the  original  pitch  and 
kept  for  future  use. 

The  gumming  is  done  with  the  edge  of  the  file  while 
filing  the  front  edges  of  the  teeth.  It  is  finished  with 
the  flat  side  of  the  file  while  filing  the  rear  edges  of 
the  teeth.  The  depth,  or  length,  of  the  teeth  should  be 
kept  the  same  as  the  manufacturer  designed  them.  A 
wood  saw  works  best  when  the  front  edges  of  the  teeth 
have  but  little  bevel.  The  back  edges  should  have 
more  slant.  The  teeth  should  have  three-cornered  or 
diamond-shaped  points.  Needle  points  break  off  when 
they  come  against  knots  or  cross-grained  hardwood. 


70 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Short  teeth  do  no  cutting.  Single  cut  flat  files  are  used 
for  circular  saws.  The  file  should  fit  the  saw.  It 
should  be  about  %''  wider  than  the  length  of  the  front 
side  of  the  teeth.  The  back  edges  require  that  the  file 
shall  have  some  play  to  show  part  of  the  tooth  while 
the  file  is  in  motion.  Large  files  are  clumsy.  The  file 
should  be  carefully  selected. 

How  to  Sharpen  a  Hoe. — It  is  quicker  and  more  sat- 
isfactory to  file  a  hoe  sharp  than  to  grind  it  on  the 


Figure  96. — How  to  Sharpen  a  Hoe.  Grinding  a  hoe  is  difficult, 
but  filing  it  sharp  ani  straight  at  the  cutting  edge  is  easy.  If  the 
hoe  chatters  when  held  in  the  vise,  spring  a  wooden  block  under  the 
blade.     Use  false  vise  jaws  to  prevent  dinging  the  shank. 


grindstone.  The  shank  of  the  hoe  must  be  held  firmly 
in  the  vise  and  there  should  be  a  solid  block  of  wood 
under  the  blade  of  the  hoe,  a  little  back  from  the  edge; 
to  keep  the  file  from  chattering.  A  single  cut  flat  file 
is  the  best  to  use.  It  should  be  long  enough  to  be 
easily  held  in  one  position  to  make  a  smooth,  even  bevel 
at  the  same  angle  to  the  face  of  the  blade  all  the  way 
across.  To  make  sure  not  to  file  a  feather  edge  it  is 
better  to  joint  the  hoe  to  begin  with,  then  to  stop  filing 
just  before  reaching  the  edge.     If  the  edge  be  left 


FARM  SHOP  WORK  71 

1/64''  thick  it  will  wear  longer  and  work  more  easily- 
after  having  been  used  an  hour  or  two  than  it  will  if 
the  edge  be  filed  thin.  This  is  especially  noticeable 
when  the  ground  contains  small  stones.  Hoes  are 
sharpened  from  the  under  side  only.  The  inside  of  a 
hoe  blade  should  be  straight  clear  to  the  edge.  Hoes 
should  always  have  sharp  corners.  When  working 
around  valuable  plants  you  want  to  know  exactly 
where  the  corner  of  the  hoe  is  when  the  blade  is  buried 
out  of  sight  in  the  ground. 

Shoeing  Farm  Horses. — Farmers  have  no  time  or 
inclination  to  make  a  business  of  shoeing  horses,  but 
there  are  occasions  when  it  is  necessary  to  pull  a  shoe 
or  set  a  shoe  and  to  do  it  quickly.  Shoeing  tools  are  not 
numerous  or  expensive.  They  consist  first  of  a  tool  box, 
with  a  stiff  iron  handle  made  in  the  shape  of  a  bale. 
The  box  contains  a  shoeing  hammer,  hoof  rasp,  hoof 
knife,  or  paring-knife,  as  it  is  usually  called,  and  two 
sizes  of  horseshoe-nails.  Sometimes  a  foot  pedestal  is 
used  to  set  the  horse's  front  foot  on  when  the  horse 
wants  to  bear  down  too  hard,  but  this  pedestal  is  not 
necessary  in  the  farm  shop. 

There  are  flat-footed  horses  that  <?annot  work  even 
in  summer  without  shoes.  Common  sense  and  shoeing 
tools  are  the  only  requirements  necessary  to  tack  on  a 
plate  without  calks.  Shoes  to  fit  any  foot  may  be  pur- 
chased at  so  much  a  pound. 

A  paring-knife  is  used  to  level  the  bottom  of  the 
hoof  so  that  it  will  have  an  even  bearing  on  the  shoe  all 
the  way  round.  It  is  not  desirable  to  pare  the  frog  or 
the  braces  in  the  bottom  of  a  horse 's  foot.  If  the  foot 
is  well  cupped,  a  little  of  the  horny  rim  may  be  taken 
off  near  the  edges.  Generally  it  is  necessary  to  shorten 
the  toe.    This  is  done  partly  with  the  hoof  chisel  and 


72  FARM  MECHANICS 

rasp  after  the  shoe  is  nailed  fast.  Sometimes  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch  is  sufficient;  at  other  times  a  horse's 
hoof  is  very  much  improved  by  taking  off  one-half  inch 
or  more  of  the  toe  growth  either  from  the  bottom  or  the 
front  or  both. 

Like  all  other  mechanical  work  the  shoeing  of  a 
horse's  foot  should  be  studied  and  planned  before 
starting.  A  long  toe  is  a  bad  leverage  to  overcome 
when  pulling  a  heavy  load.    At  the  same  time,  nature 


Figure  97. — Tool  Box  for  Field  Use.  The  long  open  side  is  for 
tools.  On  the  other  side  of  the  center  partition  bolts,  keys,  screws, 
nails,  bits  of  wire,  leather,  tin,  etc.,  are  kept  in  the  different 
divisions. 

intended  that  a  horse  should  have  considerable  toe 
length  as  a  protection  to  the  more  tender  parts  of  the 
foot.  And  the  pastern  bone  should  play  at  the  proper 
angle. 

Handy  Tool  Box, — ^A  tool  box  with  a  high  lengthwise 
partition  in  the  middle  and  a  handle  in  the  middle  of 
the  top  of  the  partition  is  the  handiest  tool  box  ever 
used  on  a  farm.  At  haying  and  harvest  time  it  should 
be  fitted  with  the  common  tools  required  about  haying 
and  harvest  machinery.  One  side  is  partitioned  into 
square  boxes  to  hold  split  wire  keys,  washers,  bolts, 
rivets,  and  a  collection  of  wire  nails,  bits  of  copper 


FARM   SHOP  WORK  73 

wire,  a  leather  punch,  etc.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
box  is  an  assortment  of  wrenches,  cold  chisels,  punches, 
pliers  and  hammers.  This  tool  box  belongs  in  the 
wagon  that  accompanies  the  outfit  to  the  field. 

Babbitting  Boxings. — Babbitting  boxings  is  one  of 
the  repair  jobs  on  the  farm.  Some  men  are  careless 
about  oiling;  sometimes  sand  cuts  them  out.  Every 
year  some  boxings  need  rebabbitting.  The  melting 
ladle  should  be  large  enough  to  pour  the  largest  box. 
Usually  a  5-inch  bowl  is  about  right.    A  large  ladle 


Figure  98. — ^Melting  Ladle.  Babbitting  shaft  boxing  requires  a 
melting  ladle.  It  should  be  about  five  inches  across  the  bowl  and 
about  three  inches  deep.     That  is  a  good  size  to  heat  in  a  forge  fire. 

will  pour  a  small  box  but  a  small  ladle  won't  pour  a 
large  one.  In  cold  weather  the  shaft  and  box  should 
be  warmed  to  insure  an  even  flow  of  metal.  Pasteboard 
is  fitted  against  the  shaft  when  pouring  the  cap  or  top 
half  of  the  box.  Pasteboard  is  fitted  around  the  shaft 
at  the  ends  of  the  box  to  keep  the  melted  metal  from 
running  out.  Never  use  clay  or  putty,  it  is  too  mussy 
and  the  babbitt  is  made  rough  and  uneven  at  the  edges. 
Some  skill  is  required  to  fit  either  wood  or  metal  close 
enough  to  prevent  leaks  and  to  do  a  neat  job. 

If  the  boxing  is  small,  both  top  and  bottom  may  be 
poured  at  once  by  making  holes  through  the  dividing 
pasteboard.  The  holes  must  be  large  enough  to  let  the 
melted  metal  through  and  small  enough  to  break  apart 
easily  when  cold. 


CHAPTER  III 

GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  TO  DRIVE 
MODERN  FARM  MACHINERY 

At  one  time  ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States  got  their  living  directly  from  till- 
ing the  soil,  and  the  power  used  was  oxen  and  manual 
labor.  At  the  present  time  probably  not  more  than 
thirty-five  per  cent  of  our  people  are  actively  engaged 
in  agricultural  pursuits.  And  the  power  problem  has 
been  transferred  to  horses,  steam,  gasoline,  kerosene 
and  water  power,  with  electricity  as  a  power  conveyor. 

Fifty  years  ago  a  farmer  was  lucky  if  he  owned  a 
single  moldboard  cast-iron  plow  that  he  could  follow  all 
day  on  foot  and  turn  over  one,  or  at  most,  two  acres. 
The  new  traction  engines  are  so  powerful  that  it  is 
possible  to  plow  sixty  feet  in  width,  and  other  ma- 
chines have  been  invented  to  follow  the  tractor 
throughout  the  planting  and  growing  seasons  to  the 
end  of  the  harvest.  The  tractor  is  supplemented  by 
numerous  smaller  powers.  All  of  which  combine  to 
make  it  possible  for  one-third  of  the  people  to  grow 
enough  to  feed  the  whole  American  family  and  to  ex- 
port a  surplus  to  Europe. 

At  the  same  time,  the  standard  of  living  is  very  much 
higher  than  it  was  when  practically  everyone  worked 
in  the  fields  to  grow  and  to  harvest  the  food  necessary 
to  live. 

Farm  machinery  is  expensive,  but  it  is  more  expen- 
sive to  do  without.    Farmers  who  make  the  most  money 

74 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  75 

are  the  ones  who  use  the  greatest  power  and  the  best 
machinery.  Farmers  who  have  a  hard  time  of  it  are 
the  ones  who  use  the  old  wheezy  hand  pump,  the  eight- 
foot  harrow  and  the  walking  plow.  The  few  horses 
they  keep  are  small  and  the  work  worries  them.  The 
owner  sympathizes  with  his  team  and  that  worries  him. 
Worry  is  the  commonest  form  of  insanity. 


3aOt= 


Figure  99. — Flail,  the  oldest  threshing  machine,  still  used  for 
threshing  pedigreed  seeds  to  prevent  mixing.  The  staff  is  seven  or 
eight  feet  long  and  the  swiple  is  about  three  feet  long  by  two  and 
one-half  inches  thick  in  the  middle,  tapering  to  one  and  one-half 
inches  at  the  ends.  The  staff  and  swiple  are  fastened  together  by 
rawhide  thongs. 


Figure  100. — Bucket  Yoke.  It  fits  around  the  neck  and  over  the 
shoulders.  Such  human  yokes  have  been  used  for  ages  to  carry  two 
buckets  of  water,  milk  or  other  liquids.  The  buckets  or  pails  should 
nearly  balance  each  other.  They  are  steadied  by  hand  to  prevent 
slopping. 

At  a  famous  plowing  match  held  at  Wheatland, 
Illinois,  two  interesting  facts  were  brought  out.  Boys 
are  not  competing  for  furrow  prizes  and  the  walking 
plow  has  gone  out  of  fashion.  The  plowing  at  the 
Wheatland  plowing  match  was  done  by  men  with  rid- 
ing plows.  Only  one  boy  under  eighteen  years  was 
ready  to  measure  his  ability  against  competition.  The 
attendance  of  farmers  and  visitors  numbered  about 
three  thousand,  which  shows  that  general  interest  in 
the  old-fashioned  plowing  match  is  as  keen  as  ever.  A  • 
jumbo  tractor  on  the  grounds  proved  its  ability  to 
draw  a  big  crowd  and  eighteen  plows  at  the  same  time. 
It  did  its  work  well  and  without  vulgar  ostentation. 
Lack  of  sufficient  land  to  keep  it  busy  was  the  tractor 's 


76 


FARM  MECHANICS 


only  disappointment,  but  it  reached  out  a  strong  right 
arm  and  harrowed  the  furrows  down  fine,  just  to  show 
that  it  ** wasn't  mad  at  nobody." 

Modern  farm  methods  are  continually  demanding 
more  power.    Larger  implements  are  being  used  and 


Figure  101. — Well  Sweep.  The  length 
of  the  sweep  is  sufficient  to  lower  the 
bucket  into  the  water  and  to  raise  it  to 
the  coping  at  the  top  of  the  brickwork. 
The  rock  on  the  short  end  of  the  sweep 
is  just  heavy  enough  to  balance  the 
bucket  full  of  water. 


heavier  horses  are  required  to  pull  them.  A  great  deal 
of  farm  work  is  done  by  engine  power.  Farm  power  is 
profitable  when  it  is  employed  to  its  full  capacity  in 
manufacturing  high-priced  products.  It  may  be 
profitable  also  in  preventing  waste  by  working  up 
cheap  materials  into  valuable  by-products.  The  mod- 
ern, well-managed  farm  is  a  factory  and  it  should  be 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER 


77 


managed  along  progressive  factory  methods.     In  a 
good  dairy  stable  hay,  straw,  grains  and  other  feeds 
are  manufactured  into  high-priced  cream  and  butter. 
Farming  pays  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  work . 
intelligently  applied  to  this  manner  of  increasing  val- 


Figure  102. — Wire  Stretcher.  A  small  block  and  tackle  will 
stretch  a  single  barb-wire  tight  enough  for  a  fence.  By  using  two 
wire  snatches  the  ends  of  two  wires  may  be  strained  together  for 
splicing. 


Figure  103.- 
double  blocks, 
height. 


-Block  and  Tackle.     The  rope  is  threaded  into  two 
There  is  a  safety  stop  that  holds  the  load  at  any 


ues.  It  is  difficult  to  make  a  profit  growing  and  selling 
grain.  Grain  may  sell  for  more  than  the  labor  and 
seed,  but  it  takes  so  much  vitality  from  the  land  that 
depreciation  of  capital  often  is  greater  than  the  margin 
of  apparent  profit.  When  grains  are  grown  and  fed  to 
live-stock  on  the  farm,  business  methods  demand  better 


78 


FARM  MECHANICS 


buildings  and  more  power,  which  means  that  the 
farmer  is  employing  auxiliary  machinery  and  other 
modern  methods  to  enhance  values. 

In  other  manufacturing  establishments  raw  mate- 
rial is  worked  over  into  commercial  products  which 
bring  several  times  the  amount  of  money  paid  for  the 
raw  material. 


Figure  104. — Farm  Hoists.  Two  styles  of  farm  elevating  hoists 
are  shown  in  this  illustration.  Two  very  different  lifting  jobs  are 
also   shown. 


The  principle  is  the  same  on  the  farm  except  that 
when  a  farmer  raises  the  raw  material  he  sells  it  to 
himself  at  a  profit.  When  he  feeds  it  to  live-stock  and 
sells  the  live-stock  he  makes  another  profit.  When  the 
manure  is  properly  handled  and  returned  to  the  soil 
he  is  making  another  profit  on  a  by-product. 

Farming  carried  on  in  this  way  is  a  complicated 
business  which  requires  superior  knowledge  of  business 
methods  and  principles.    In  order  to  conduct  the  busi- 


GENERATINO  MECHANICAL  POWER  79 

ness  of  farming  profitably  the  labor  problem  has  to  be 
met.  Good  farm  help  is  expensive.  Poor  farm  help  is 
more  expensive.  While  farm  machinery  also  is  ex- 
pensive, it  is  cheaper  than  hand  labor  when  the  farmer 
has  sufficient  work  to  justify  the  outlay.    It  is  tiresome 


Figure  105. — Two  Powerful  Winches.  The  one  to  the  left  is  used 
for  pulling  small  stumps  or  roots  in  the  process  of  clearing  land. 
The  rope  runs  on  and  off  the  drum  to  maintain  three  or  four  laps 
or  turns.  The  winch  to  the  right  is  used  for  hoisting  well  drilling 
tools  or  to  hang  a  beef  animal.  The  rope  winds  on  the  drum  in  two 
layers  if  necessary. 

to  have  agricultural  writers  ding  at  us  about  the  su- 
perior acre  returns  of  German  farms.  German  hand- 
made returns  may  be  greater  per  acre,  but  one  Ameri- 
can farmhand,  by  the  use  of  proper  machinery,  will 
produce  more  food  than  a  whole  German  family. 

DOG  CHURN 

Even  the  dog  works  on  some  farms.  A  dog  is  a  nui- 
sance among  dairy  cattle,  but  he  can  be  made  to  earn 
his  salt  at  churning  time.    All  mechanism  in  connec- 


80 


FARM  MECHANICS 


tion  with  dog  power  must  be  light.    It  also  is  necessary 
to  eliminate  the  friction  as  much  as  possible. 

The  best  way  to  make  a  dog  power  is  to  use  a  light 
wooden  sulky  wheel  for  the  revolving  turn  table.  Next 
best  to  the  sulky  wheel  is  a  light  buggy  wheel.  The 
wheel  is  made  fast  to  an  upright  iron  shaft  that  is 
stepped  into  an  iron  oil  well  at  the  bottom  and  inclined 


Figure  106. — Dog  Churn  Power.  A  wheel  keyed  to  an  iron  shaft 
is  placed  at  an  angle  as  shown.  The  weight  of  the  dog  turns  the 
wheel  and  power  is  conveyed  to  the  churn  by  a  light  rope  belt.  It  is 
necessary  to  confine  the  dog  between  stationary  partitions  built  like 
a  stall  over  the  wheel. 


at  an  angle  of  about  fifteen  degrees  to  give  the  neces- 
sary power.  To  steady  the  top  of  the  shaft  a  light  box- 
ing is  used,  preferably  a  ballbearing  bicycle  race  to  re- 
duce friction.  Power  is  conveyed  to  the  churn  by 
means  of  a  grooved  pulley  on  the  top  of  the  shaft.  A 
small,  soft  rope  or  heavy  string  belt  runs  from  this 
pulley  to  a  similar  pulley  connected  with  the  churn. 

Dogs  learn  to  like  the  work  when  fed  immediately 
after  the  churning  is  finished.  Dogs  have  been  known 
to  get  on  to  the  power  wheel  to  call  attention  to  their 


GENERATINO  MECHANICAL  POWER  81 

hungry  condition.  This  calls  to  mind  the  necessity  of 
arranging  a  brake  to  stop  the  wheel  to  let  the  dog  off.' 
When  the  wheel  is  running  light,  the  dog  cannot  let  go. 
A  spring  brake  to  wear  against  the  iron  tire  of  the 
wheel  is  the  most  satisfactory.  The  brake  may  be 
tripped  and  set  against  the  tire  automatically  by  a 
small  lever  and  weight  attached  to  the  underside  of 
the  wheel.  When  the  speed  is  too  fast  the  weight 
swings  out  and  sets  the  brake.  When  the  speed  slack- 
ens the  weight  drops  back  towards  the  center  and  re- 
leases the  brake.  When  the  speed  is  about  right  the 
weight  swings  between  the  two  spring  catches. 

BULL  TREADMILL 

On  dairy  farms  it  is  common  to  see  a  valuable  pure 
bred  bull  working  a  treadmill  for  exercise  and  to  pump 
water.  Sometimes  he  turns  the  cream-separator,  but 
the  motion  is  too  unsteady  for  good  results.  Tread- 
mills for  this  purpose  are  very  simple.  The  mechan- 
ism turns  a  grooved  pulley  which  propels  a  rope  pow- 
er conveyor.  The  rope  belt  may  be  carried  across  the 
yards  in  any  direction  and  to  almost  any  distance. 
Bull  treadmills  consist  of  a  framework  of  wood  which 
carries  an  endless  apron  supported  on  rollers.  The 
apron  link  chains  pass  around  and  turn  two  drumhead 
sprocket-wheels  at  the  upper  end  and  an  idler  drum  at 
the  lower  end.  The  sprocket-wheel  drum  shaft  is 
geared  to  an  auxiliary  shaft  which  carries  a  grooved 
pulley.  A  rope  belt  power  conveyor  runs  in  this  groove 
and  carries  power  from  the  bull  pen  to  the  pump. 

Bull  tread  powers  usually  have  smooth  inclined 
lags,  because  a  bull's  steps  on  the  tread  power  are 
naturally  uneven  and  irregular.  This  construction 
gives  an  even  straight  tread  to  the  travel  surface.    To 


82  FARM  MECHANICS 

prevent  slipping,  soft  wooden  strips  are  nailed  onto  the 
lags  at  the  lower  edges.  Even  incline  tread  blocks  or 
lags  are  also  recommended  for  horses  that  are  not  shod 
and  for  all  animals  with  split  hoofs.  The  traveling 
apron  of  the  power  is  placed  on  an  incline  and  the 
treads  are  carried  around  the  two  drums  at  the  upper 
and  lower  ends  of  the  frame  by  means  of  endless 


Figure  107. — Bull  Tread  Power.  Treadmills  have  gone  out  of 
fashion.  Too  much  friction  was  the  cause,  but  a  mill  like  this  is 
valuable  to  exercise  a  pure  bred  bull.  Some  dairymen  make  him 
pump  water. 

chains.  There  is  a  governor  attachment  which  regu- 
lates the  speed  and  prevents  the  machinery  from  *  ^  run- 
ning away." 

The  simplest  governor  is  made  on  the  two-ball  gov- 
ernor principle  with  weights  on  opposite  levers.  The 
governor  is  attached  to  two  opposite  spokes  in  the  fly- 
wheel. As  the  speed  increases  the  weights  move  out- 
ward because  of  their  centrifugal  force.  This  motion 
operates  a  brake  lever  to  retard  or  stop  the  flywheel. 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  83 

When  the  machine  stops  an  opposite  weight  rests 
against  the  flywheel  until  it  starts  in  motion  again,  so 
the  apron  cannot  be  moved  until  the  brake  is  released. 
This  is  necessary  to  get  the  animal  on  or  off  of  the  plat- 
form while  it  is  at  rest  to  avoid  accidents.  The  usual 
incline  is  a  rise  of  two  feet  in  eight  when  power  is 
wanted.  This  pitch  compels  the  bull  to  lift  one-quarter 
of  his  own  weight  and  it  may  be  too  severe  for  a  heavy 
animal.  The  endless  apron  is  an  endless  hill  climb  to 
the  bull.  Treadmills  are  not  economical  of  power  be- 
cause there  are  so  many  bearings  to  generate  friction. 

WINDMILLS 

Wind  power  is  the  cheapest  power  we  have.  A  wind- 
mill properly  proportioned  to  its  work  is  a  great  help, 
especially  when  it  is  attached  to  a  good  pump  for  the 
purpose  of  lifting  water  into  an  elevated  tank  from 
which  it  is  piped  under  pressure  for  domestic  purposes 
and  for  watering  live-stock. 

You  can  have  considerable  patience  with  a  windmill 
if  you  only  depend  upon  it  for  pumping  water,  pro- 
vided you  have  a  tank  that  will  hold  a  week's  supply  to 
be  drawn  during  a  dry,  hot  time  when  every  animal  on 
the  farm  demands  a  double  allowance  of  water.  That 
is  the  time  when  a  farmer  hates  to  attach  himself  to 
the  pump  handle  for  the  purpose  of  working  up  a 
hickory  breeze.  That  also  is  the  time  when  the  wind 
neglects  a  fellow. 

A  good  windmill  is  useful  up  to  about  one-third  of  its 
rated  capacity,  which  is  the  strongest  argument  for 
buying  a  mill  larger  than  at  first  seems  necessary.  Some 
men  have  suffered  at  some  time  in  their  lives  with  the 
delusion  that  they  could  tinker  with  a  poorly  con- 
structed windmill  and  make  it  earn  its  oil.    They  have 


84  FARM  MECHANICS 

never  waked  up  to  a  full  realization  of  their  early  de- 
lusion. It  is  a  positive  fact  that  all  windmills  are  not 
lazy,  deceitful  nor  wholly  unreliable.  When  properly 
constructed,  rightly  mounted  and  kept  in  good  repair, 
they  are  not  prone  to  work  in  a  crazy  fashion  when  the 
tank  is  full  and  loaf  when  it  is  empty.  There  are 
thousands  of  windmills  that  have  faithfully  staid  on 
the  job  continuously  twenty-four  hours  per  day  for 
five  or  ten  years  at  a  stretch,  all  the  time  working  for 
nothing  year  after  year  without  grumbling,  except 
when  compelled  to  run  without  oil.  At  such  times  the 
protest  is  loud  and  nerve  racking. 

A  good  windmill  with  suitable  derrick,  pump  and 
piping  may  cost  $150.  The  yearly  expense  figures 
something  like  this: 

Interest  on  investment  at  6%  per  annum. .  .$  9.00 

Depreciation  10% 15.00 

Oil   1.00 

Eepairs  3.00 

making  a  total  of  $28,  which  is  less  than  $2.50  per 
month  for  the  work  of  elevating  a  constant  supply  of 
water  for  the  house,  stable  and  barnyard. 

ONE-MULE  PUMP 

A  home-made  device  that  is  much  used  on  live-stock 
ranches  in  California  is  shown  in  the  illustration. 
This  simple  mechanism  is  a  practical  means  for  con- 
verting circular  mule  motion  into  vertical  reciprocat- 
ing pump  action.  A  solid  post  is  set  rather  deep  in  the 
ground  about  twelve  feet  from  the  well.  This  post  is 
the  fulcrum  support  of  the  walking-beam.  One  end 
of  the  walking-beam  reaches  to  the  center  line  of  the 
well,  where  it  connects  with  the  pump  shaft.     The 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER 


85 


other  end  of  the  walking-beam  is  operated  by  a  pit- 
man shaft  connecting  with  a  crank  wrist  pin  near  the 
ground.  A  round  iron  shaft  similar  to  a  horse-power 
tumbling  rod  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  length  and 
one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  is  used  to  convey 
power  and  motion  to  the  pitman  shaft. 


JDETAIL'A" 


iB? 


Figure  108. — Mule  Pump.  A  practical  home-made  power  to  pump 
water  for  live-stock.  It  is  used  where  the  water-table  is  within 
20  feet  of  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  drawing  shows  a  post 
in  the  center  which  supports  the  walking-beam  and  acts  as  a  fulcrum. 
A  mowing-machine  wheel  is  keyed  to  one  end  of  a  round  iron  shaft. 
The  other  end  of  this  shaft  turns  in  a  boxing  which  is  swiveled  to  a 
short  post  as  shown  at  B.  See'  also  detail  ''B.".  The  two  plunger 
shafts  are  shown  at  A  A.  The  mule  is  hitched  to  the  round  iron 
shaft  near  the  traveling  wheel  by  means  of  a  round  hook.  As  the 
mule  walks  around  in  a  circle  the  shaft  revolves  and  operates  the 
crank  B.  There  are  side  guys  not  shown  in  the  drawing  to  keep  the 
walking-beam  in  position. 

A  mowing-machine  wheel  is  keyed  to  the  outer  end 
of  the  tumbling  rod.  At  the  crank  end  is  a  babbitted 
boxing  with  a  bolt  attachment  reaching  down  into  the 
top  of  a  short  post  set  solidly  into  the  ground,  directly 
under  the  inner  end  of  the  walking-beam.  This  bolt 
permits  the  boxing  to  revolve  with  a  swivel  motion. 
Another  swivel  connects  the  upper  end  of  the  pitman 
shaft  with  the  walking-beam.  The  whiffletree  is  at- 
tached to  the  tumbling  rod  by  an  iron  hook.  This  hook 
is  held  in  place  by  two  iron  collars  fastened  to  the 


86  FARM  MECHANICS 

tumbling  rod  by  means  of  keys  or  set-screws.  The 
mowing-machine  drive  wheel  travels  around  in  a  cir- 
cle behind  the  mule  turning  the  shaft  which  works  the 
walking-beam  and  operates  the  pump.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  design  another  horse  or  mule  power  so 
cheap  and  simple  and  effective.  The  mule  grows  wise 
after  a  while,  so  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  blindfold,  or  he 
will  soldier  on  the  job.  With  a  little  encouragement 
from  a  whip  occasionally  a  mule  will  walk  around  and 
around  for  hours  pulling  the  mowing-machine  wheel 
after  him. 

HORSEPOWER 

One  horsepower  is  a  force  sufficient  to  lift  33,000 
pounds  one  foot  high  in  one  minute. 

The  term  '^horsepower''  in  popular  use  years  ago 
meant  a  collection  of  gear-wheels  and  long  levers  with 
eight  or  ten  horses  solemnly  marching  around  in  a  cir- 
cle with  a  man  perched  on  a  platform  in  the  center  in 
the  capacity  of  umpire. 

This  was  the  old  threshing-machine  horsepower.  It 
was  the  first  real  success  in  pooling  many  different 
farm  power  units  to  concentrate  the  combined  effort 
upon  one  important  operation. 

Not  many  horses  are  capable  of  raising  33,000 
pounds  one  foot  in  one  minute  every  minute  for  an 
hour  or  a  day.  Some  horses  are  natural-born  slackers 
with  sufficient  acumen  to  beat  the  umpire  at  his  own 
game.  Some  horses  walk  faster  than  others,  also 
horses  vary  in  size  and  capacity  for  work.  But  during 
a  busy  time  each  horse  was  counted  as  one  horsepower, 
and  they  were  only  eight  or  ten  in  number.  And  it  so 
developed  that  the  threshing  horsepower  had  limita- 
tions which  the  separator  outgrew. 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER 


87 


The  old  threshing  horsepower  has  been  superseded 
by  steam  engines  and  gasoline  and  kerosene  power,  but 
horses  are  more  important  than  ever. 

Farm  horses  are  larger  and  more  powerful ;  they  are 
better  kept,  better  trained,  and  hitched  to  better  ma- 
chinery, because  it  pays.  One  man  drives  three  1,600,- 
pound  draft  horses  as  fast  as  he  used  to  drive  two 


Figure  109.- 


-Horse  Power,   showing  tlie  manner  of  attacliing  the 
braced  lever  to  the  bull  wheel. 


1,000-pound  general-purpose  horses.  The  three  draft- 
ers make  play  of  a  heavy  load,  while  the  two  light 
horses  worry  themselves  poor  and  accomplish  little. 
Modern  farm  machinery  is  heavier,  it  cuts  wider  and 
digs  deeper  and  does  more  thorough  work.  Modern 
farm  requirements  go  scientifically  into  the  proper  cul- 
tivation and  preparation  of  soil  to  increase  fertility. 
Old  methods  used  up  fertility  until  the  land  refused 
to  produce  profitably. 


88  FARM  MECHANICS 

Although  the  old  familiar  horsepower  has  been 
greatly  outclassed,  it  has  not  been  discarded.  There 
are  many  small  horsepowers  in  use  for  elevating  grain, 
baling  hay,  cutting  straw  for  feed  and  bedding,  grind- 
ing feed  and  other  light  work  where  engine  power  is 
not  available. 

WATER-POWER 

Water-power  is  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  kinds  of 
stationary  farm  power,  when  a  steady  stream  of  water 
may  be  harnessed  to  a  good  water-wheel.  It  is  not  a 
difficult  engineering  feat  to  throw  a  dam  across  a  small 
stream  and  take  the  water  out  into  a  penstock  to  sup- 
ply water  to  a  turbine  water-wheel.  In  the  first  place 
it  is  necessary  to  measure  the  flow  of  water  to  deter- 
mine the  size  of  water-wheel  which  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage. In  connection  with  the  flow  of  water  it  is  also 
important  to  know  the  fall.  Water  is  measured  by 
what  is  termed  a  *  ^  weir. ' '  It  is  easily  made  by  cutting 
an  oblong  notch  in  a  plank  placed  across  the  stream,  as 
a  temporary  dam  which  raises  the  water  a  few  inches 
to  get  a  steady,  even  flow  of  water  through  the  notch 
so  that  calculations  may  be  made  in  miner's  inches. 
The  term  *  ^  miner 's  inch ' '  is  not  accurate,  but  it  comes 
near  enough  for  practical  purposes.  Measuring  the 
volume  of  water  should  be  done  during  a  dry  time  in 
summer. 

The  fall  of  the  stream  is  easily  measured  by  means 
of  a  carpenter 's  level  and  a  stake.  The  stake  is  driven 
into  the  ground  at  a  point  downstream  where  water 
may  be  delivered  to  the  wheel  and  a  tailrace  established 
to  the  best  advantage.  Sighting  over  the  level  to  a 
mark  on  the  stake  will  show  the  amount  of  fall.  When 
a  manufacturer  of  water-wheels  has  the  amount  of  wa- 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  89 

ter  and  the  fall,  he  can  estimate  the  size  and  character 
of  wheel  to  supply.  The  penstock  may  be  vertical  or 
placed  on  a  slant.  A  galvanized  pipe  sufficient  to  carry 
the  necessary  amount  of  water  may  be  laid  along  the 
bank,  but  it  should  be  thoroughly  well  supported  be- 
cause a  pipe  full  of  water  is  heavy,  and  settling  is 
likely  to  break  a  joint. 

Galvanized  piping  for  a  farm  penstock  is  not  nec- 
essarily expensive.  It  may  be  made  at  any  tin  shop 
and  put  together  on  the  ground  in  sections.  The  only 
difficult  part  about  it  is  soldering  the  under  side  of 
the  joints,  but  generally  it  may  be  rolled  a  little  to  one 
side  until  the  bottom  of  the  seam  is  reached. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  to  carry  power  from  the 
water-wheel  to  the  farm  buildings  is  by  means  of  elec- 
tricity. The  dynamo  may  be  coupled  to  the  water- 
wheel  and  wires  carried  any  required  distance. 

The  work  of  installing  electric  power  machinery  is 
more  a  question  of  detail  than  mechanics  or  electrical 
engineering.  The  different  appliances  are  bought  from 
the  manufacturer  and  placed  where  they  are  needed. 
It  is  principally  a  question  of  expense  and  quantity  of 
electricity  needed  or  developed.  If  the  current  is  used 
for  power,  then  a  motor  is  connected  with  the  dynamo 
and  current  from  the  dynamo  drives  the  motor.  A 
dynamo  may  be  connected  with  the  water-wheel  shaft 
at  the  source  of  power  and  the  motor  may  be  placed  in 
the  power-house  or  any  of  the  other  buildings. 

The  cost  of  farm  waterworks  depends  principally 
on  the  amount  of  power  developed.  Small  machinery 
may  be  had  for  a  few  hundred  dollars,  but  large,  pow- 
erful machinery  is  expensive.  If  the  stream  is  large 
and  considerable  power  is  going  to  waste  it  might  pay 
to  put  in  a  larger  plant  and  sell  current  to  the  neigh- 


90  FARM  MECHANICS 

bors  for  electric  lighting  and  for  power  purposes. 
Standard  machinery  is  manufactured  for  just  such 
plants. 

The  question  of  harnessing  a  stream  on  your  own 
land  when  you  control  both  banks  is  a  simple  business 
proposition.  If  anyone  else  can  set  up  a  plausible  plea 
of  riparian  rights,  flood  damage,  interstate  complica- 
tions or  interference  with  navigation,  it  then  becomes 
a  question  of  litigation  to  be  decided  by  some  succeed- 
ing generation. 

STEAM  BOILER  AND  ENGINE 

Farm  engines  usually  are  of  two  different  types, 
steam  engines  and  gasoline  or  oil  engines.  Steam  sta- 
tionary engines  are  used  on  dairy  farms  because  steam 
is  the  best  known  means  of  keeping  a  dairy  clean  and 
sanitary.  The  boiler  that  furnishes  power  to  run  the 
engine  also  supplies  steam  to  heat  water  and  steam  for 
sterilizing  bottles,  cans  and  other  utensils. 

For  some  unaccountable  reason  steam  engines  are 
more  reliable  than  gasoline  engines.  At  the  same  time 
they  require  more  attention,  that  is,  the  boilers  do. 
Steam  engines  have  been  known  to  perform  their  tasks 
year  after  year  without  balking  and  without  repairs 
or  attention  of  any  kind  except  to  feed  steam  and  oil 
into  the  necessary  parts,  and  occasionally  repack  the 
stuffing  boxes. 

On  the  other  hand,  boilers  require  superintendence 
to  feed  them  with  both  fuel  and  water.  The  amount 
of  time  varies  greatly.  If  the  boiler  is  very  much 
larger  than  the  engine,  that  is,  if  the  boiler  is  big 
enough  to  furnish  steam  for  two  such  engines,  it  will 
furnish  steam  for  one  engine  and  only  half  try.  This 
means  that  the  fireman  can  raise  40  or  60  pounds  of 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER         91 

steam  and  attend  to  his  other  work  around  the  dairy 
or  barn. 

Where  steam  boilers  are  required  for  heating  water 
and  furnishing  steam  to  scald  cans  and  wash  bottles, 
the  boiler  should  be  several  horsepower  larger  than  the 
engine  requirements.  There  is  no  objection  to  this 
except  that  a  large  boiler  costs  more  than  a  smaller 
one,  and  that  more  steam  is  generated  than  is  actually- 
required  to  run  the  engine.  The  kind  of  work  re- 
quired of  a  boiler  and  engine  must  determine  the  size 
and  general  character  of  the  installation. 

Portable  boilers  and  engines  are  not  quite  so  satis- 
factory as  stationary,  but  there  are  a  great  many  por- 
table outfits  that  give  good  satisfaction,  and  there  is 
the  advantage  of  moving  them  to  the  different  parts  of 
the  farm  when  power  is  required  for  certain  purposes. 

SMALL   GASOLINE  ENGINES 

A  gasoline  engine  of  2^^  horsepower  is  the  most  use- 
ful size  for  a  general  purpose  farm  engine.  It  is  con- 
venient to  run  the  pump,  washing-machine,  fanning- 
mill,  cream-separator,  grindstone,  and  other  similar 
farm  chores  that  have  heretofore  always  been  done  by 
human  muscle.  A  small  engine  may  be  placed  on  a 
low-down  truck  and  moved  from  one  building  to  an- 
other by  hand.  One  drive  belt  20  or  30  feet  long,  mak- 
ing a  double  belt  reach  of  12  or  15  feet,  will  answer 
for  each  setting. 

The  engine  once  lined  up  to  hitch  onto  the  pulley  of 
any  stationary  machine  is  all  that  is  necessary.  When 
the  truck  is  once  placed  in  proper  position  the  wheels 
may  be  blocked  by  a  casting  of  concrete  molded  into  a 
depression  in  the  ground  in  front  and  behind  each 


92  FARM  MECHANICS 

wheel.    These  blocks  are  permanent  so  that  the  truck 
may  be  pulled  to  the  same  spot  each  time. 

A  gasoline  engine  for  farm  u§e  is  expected  to  run 
by  the  hour  without  attention.  For  this  reason  it 
should  have  a  good,  reliable  hit  and  miss  governor  to 
regulate  the  speed,  as  this  type  is  the  most  economical 
in  fuel.     It  should  have  a  magneto  in  addition  to  a 


Figure  110. — Kerosene  Farm  Engine.  This  Is  a  very  compact  type 
of  engine  with  heavy  flywheels.  A  longer  base  might  sit  steadier 
on  a  wagon,  but  for  stationary  use  on  a  solid  concrete  pier  it  gives 
good  service. 

six-cell  dry  battery.  It  should  be  equipped  with  an 
impulse  starter,  a  device  that  eliminates  all  starting 
troubles.  The  engine  should  be  perfectly  balanced  so 
as  to  insure  smooth  running,  which  adds  materially  to 
the  life  of  the  engine.  With  a  good,  solid  pump  jack, 
a  2^  horsepower  engine  will  pump  water  until  the 
tank  is  full,  whether  it  requires  one  hour  or  half  a 
day. 

It  is  easily  moved  to  the  dairy"  house  to  run  the 
separator.    As  the  cream-separator  chore  comes  along 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  93 

regularly  every  night  and  every  morning,  the  engine 
and  truck  would  naturally  remain  inside  of  the  dairy 
house  more  than  any  other  place.  If  the  dairy  house 
is  too  small  to  let  the  engine  in,  then  an  addition  is 
necessary,  for  the  engine  must  be  kept  under  cover. 
The  engine  house  should  have  some  artistic  pretensions 
and  a  coat  of  paint. 

KEROSENE  PORTABLE  ENGINES 

The  kerosene  engine  is  necessarily  of  the  throttle 
governor  type  in  order  to  maintain  approximately  uni- 
form high  temperature  at  all  times,  so  essential  to  the 
proper  combustion  of  kerosene  fuel.  Therefore,  a  kero- 
sene engine  of  the  hit-and-miss  type  should  be  avoided. 
However,  there  are  certain  classes  of  work  where  a 
throttle  governor  engine  is  at  a  decided  disadvantage, 
such  as  sawing  wood,  because  a  throttle  governor  en- 
gine will  not  go  from  light  load  to  full  load  as  quickly 
as  will  a  hit-and-miss  type,  and  consequently  chokes 
down  much  easier,  causing  considerable  loss  of  time. 

A  general  purpose  portable  kerosene  engine  is  ad- 
mirably suited  to  all  work  requiring  considerable  horse- 
power and  long  hours  of  service  with  a  fairly  steady 
load,  such  as  tractor  work,  threshing,  custom  feed 
grinding,  irrigating  and  silo  filling.  There  will  be  a 
considerable  saving  in  fuel  bill  over  a  gasoline  engine 
if  the  engine  will  really  run  with  kerosene,  or  other 
low-priced  fuel,  without  being  mixed  with  gasoline. 

In  choosing  a  kerosene  engine,  particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  whether  or  not  the  engine  can  be  run 
on  all  loads  without  smoking.  Unless  this  can  be  done, 
liquid  fuel  is  entering  the  cylinder  which  will  cause  ex- 
cessive wear  on  the  piston  and  rings.  A  good  kerosene 
engine  should  show  as  clean  an  exhaust  as  when  operat- 


94  FARM  MECHANICS 

ing  on  gasoline  and  should  develop  approximately  as 
much  horsepower.  Another  feature  is  harmonizing  the 
fuel  oil  and  the  lubricating  oil  so  that  one  will  not 
counteract  the  effects  of  the  other. 

PORTABLE  FARM  ENGINE  AND  TRUCK 

A  convenient  arrangement  for  truck  and  portable 
power  for  spraying,  sawing  wood  and  irrigation  pump- 
ing, is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  The 
truck  is  low  down,  which  keeps  the  machinery  within 


Figure  111. — (Portable  Farm  Engine.  This  engine  is  permanently 
mounted  on  a  low  wheel  truck  wagon.  The  saw  frame  is  detachable 
and  the  same  truck  is  used  for  spraying  and  other  work. 

reach.  The  wheels  are  well  braced,  which  tends  to 
hold  the  outfit  steady  when  the  engine  is  running.  The 
saw  table  is  detachable.  When  removed,  the  spraying 
tank  bolts  on  to  the  same  truck  frame ;  also  the  elevated 
table  with  the  railing  around  it,  where  the  men  stand 
to  spray  large  apple  trees,  is  bolted  onto  the  wagon 
bed. 

Spraying  never  was  properly  done  until  the  power- 
ful engine  and  high  pressure  tanks  were  invented. 
Spraying  to  be  effective,  should  be  fine  as  mist,  which 
requires  a  pressure  of  150  pounds.    There  may  be  a 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  95 

number  of  attachments  to  a  spraying  outfit  of  this 
kind.  A  pipe  suspended  under  the  frame  with  a  noz- 
zle for  each  row  is  used  to  spray  potatoes,  strawberry 
vines  and  other  low  down  crops  that  are  grown  in  rows. 
When  not  in  use 'as  a  portable  engine  it  is  blocked 
firmly  into  place  to  run  the  regular  stationary  farm 
machinery. 

HYDRAULIC   RAM 

The  hydraulic  ram  is  a  machine  that  gets  its  power 
from  the  momentum  of  running  water.  A  ram  consists 
of  a  pipe  of  large  diameter,  an  air  chamber  and  an- 
other pipe  of  small  diameter,  all  connected  by  means  of 
valves  to  encourage  the  flow  of  water  in  two  different 
directions.  A  supply  of  running  water  with  a  fall  of 
at  least  two  feet  is  run  through  a  pipe  several  inches 
in  diameter  reaching  from  above  the  dam  to  the  hy- 
draulic ram,  where  part  of  the  flow  enters  the  air 
chamber  of  the  ram.  Near  the  foot  of  the  large  pipe, 
or  at  what  might  be  called  the  tailrace,  is  a  peculiarly 
constructed  valve  that  closes  when  running  water 
starts  to  pass  through  it.  When  the  large  valve  closes 
the  water  stops  suddenly,  which  causes  a  back-pressure 
sufficient  to  lift  a  check-valve  to  admit  a  certain 
amount  of  water  from  the  large  supply  pipe  into  the 
air-chamber  of  the  ram. 

After  the  flow  of  water  is  checked,  the  foot-valve 
drops  of  its  own  weight,  which  again  starts  the  flow 
of  water  through  the  large  pipe,  and  the  process  is 
repeated  a  thousand  or  a  million  times,  each  time  forc- 
ing a  little  water  through  the  check-valve  into  the  air 
chamber  of  the  ram.  The  water  is  continually  being 
forced  out  into  the  small  delivery  pipe  in  a  constant 
stream  because  of  the  steady  pressure  of  the  impris- 
oned air  in  the  air-chamber  which  acts  as  a  cushion. 


96 


FARM  MECHANICS 


This  imprisoned  air  compresses  after  each  kick  and  ex 
pands  between  kicks  in  a  manner  intended  to  force  a 
more  or  less  steady  flow  of  water  through  the  small 
pipe.  The  air  pressure  is  maintained  by  means  of  a 
small  valve  that  permits  a  little  air  to  suck  in  with  the 
supply  of  water. 


Figure  112. — Hydraulic  Ram.  The  upper  drawing  shows  how  to 
install  the  ram.  The  lower  drawing  is  a  detail  section  through  th^ 
center  of  the  ram.  Water  flows  downhill  through  the  supply  pipe. 
The  intermittent  action  of  the  valve  forces  a  portion  of  the  water 
through  another  valve  into  the  air-chamber.  Air  pressure  forces 
this  water  out  through  delivery  pipe.  Another  valve  spills  the  waste 
water  over  into  the  tailrace.  An  automatic  air-valve  intermittently 
admits  air  into  the  air-chamber. 

Water  may  be  conveyed  uphill  to  the  house  by  this 
means,  sometimes  to  considerable  distance.  The  size 
of  the  ram  and  its  power  to  lift  water  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  water  at  the  spring  and  the  number  of 
feet  of  fall.  In  laying  the  small  pipe,  it  should  be 
placed  well  down  under  ground  to  keep  it  cool  in  sum- 
mer and  to  bury  it  beyond  the  reach  of  winter  frost. 
At  the  upper  end  where  the  water  is  delivered  a  stor- 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER  97 

age  tank  with  an  overflow  is  necessary,  so  the  water 
can  run  away  when  not  being  drawn  for  use.  A  con- 
stant supply  through  a  ram  demands  a  constant  deliv- 
ery. It  is  necessary  to  guard  the  water  intake  at  the 
dam.  A  fence  protection  around  the  supply  pool  to 
keep  live-stock  or  wild  animals  out  is  the  first  measure 
of  precaution.  A  fine  screen  surrounding  the  upper 
end  of  the  pipe  that  supplies  water  to  the  ram  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  small  trash  from  interfering  with  the 
valves. 

THE    FARM    TRACTOR 

Farm  tractors  are  becoming  practical.  Most  the- 
ories have  had  a  try  out,  the  junk  pile  has  received 
many  failures  and  the  fittest  are  about  to  survive. 
Now,  if  the  manufacturers  will  standardize  the  rating 
and  the  important  parts  and  improve  their  selling  or- 
ganizations the  whole  nation  will  profit.  The  success- 
ful tractors  usually  have  vertical  engines  with  four 
cylinders.  They  are  likely  to  have  straight  spur  trans- 
mission gears,  and  a  straight  spur  or  chain  drive,  all 
carefully  protected  from  dust.  And  they  will  have 
considerable  surface  bearing  to  avoid  packing  the  soil. 
Some  tractors  carry  their  weight  mostly  upon  the  drive 
wheels — a  principle  that  utilizes  weight  to  increase 
traction.  Other  tractors  exert  a  great  deal  of  energy 
in  forcing  a  small,  narrow  front  steering-wheel  through 
the  soft  ground.  Any  farmer  who  has  pushed  a  loaded 
wheelbarrow  knows  what  that  means.  Some  kerosene 
tractors  require  a  large  percentage  of  gasoline.  The 
driver  may  be  as  much  to  blame  as  the  engine.  But 
it  should  be  corrected. 

Manufacturers  should  do  more  educational  work  and 
talk  less  about  the  wonderfully  marvelous  and  mar- 
velously  wonderful.    Salesmen  should  study  mechanics 


98 


FARM  MECHANICS 


instead  of  oratory.    Tractor  efficiency  should  be  rated 
practically  instead  of  theoretically.     The  few  actual 


Figure  113. — Tractor  Transmission  Gear.     Spur  gears  are  the  most 
satisfactory  for  heavy  work. 

reports  of  performance  have  emanated  from  tests  with 
new  machines  in  the  hands  of  trained  demonstrators. 
Manufacturers  include  belt  power  work  among  the 


GENERATING  MECHANICAL  POWER 


99 


virtues  of  farm  tractors,  and  they  enumerate  many 
light  jobs,  such  as  running  a  cream-separator,  sawing 
wood,  pumping  water  and  turning  the  fanning-mill. 
Well,  a  farm  tractor  can  do  such  work — yes.  So  can 
an  elephant  push  a  bfeby  carriage.    If  manufacturers 


Figure  114. — Straight  Transmission  Gear,  forward  and  chain  drive 
reverse,  for  traction  engine. 

would  devise  a  practical  means  of  using  electricity  as 
an  intermediary,  and  explain  to  farmers  how  a  day's 
energy  may  be  stored  in  practical  working  batteries  to 
be  paid  out  in  a  week,  then  we  could  understand  why 
we  should  run  a  20  horsepower  engine  to  operate  a 
cream-separator  one  hour  at  night  and  another  hour  in 
the  morning. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DEIVEN  MACHINES 
FARM    WATERWORKS 

Every  farm  has  its  own  water  supply.  Some  are 
very  simple,  others  are  quite  elaborate.  It  is  both 
possible  and  practical  for  a  farmer  to  have  his  own 
tap  water  under  pressure  on  the  same  plan  as  the  city. 
When  good  water  is  abundant  within  75  feet  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground  the  farm  supply  may  be  had 
cheaper  and  better  than  the  city.  Even  deep  well 
pumping  is  practical  with  good  machinery  rightly  in- 
stalled. Farm  waterworks  should  serve  the  house  and 
the  watering  troughs  under  a  pressure  of  at  least  40 
pounds  at  the  ground  level.  The  system  should  also 
include  water  for  sprinkling  the  lawn  and  for  irrigat- 
ing the  garden.  If  strawberries  or  other  intensive 
money  crops  are  grown  for  market  there  should  be 
sufficient  water  in  the  pipes  to  save  the  crop  in  time  of 
drouth.  These  different  uses  should  all  be  credited 
to  the  farm  waterworks  system  pro  rata,  according  to 
the  amounts  used  by  the  different  departments  of  the 
farm.  The  books  would  then  prove  that  the  luxury  of 
hot  and  cold  running  water  in  the  farmhouse  costs  less 
than  the  average  city  family  pays. 

Three  Systems  of  Water  Storage. — The  first  plan 
adopted  for  supplying  water  under  pressure  on  farms 
was  the  overhead  tank.  The  water  was  lifted  up  into 
the  tank  by  a  windmill  and  force  pump.    Because  wind 

100 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  101 

power  proved  rather  uncertain  farlriers  adopted  the 
gasoline  engine,  usually  a  two  horsepower  engine. 

The  second  water  storage  plan  was  the  air-tight  steel 
water-tank  to  be  placed  in  the  cellar  or  in  a  pit  under- 
ground. The  same  pump  and  power  supplies  the  water 
for  this  system,  but  it  also  requires  an  air-pump  to  sup- 
ply pressure  to  force  the  water  out  of  the  tank. 

The  third  plan  forces  the  water  out  of  the  well  by  air 
pressure,  as  it  is  needed  for  use.  No  water  pump  is 
required  in  this  system;  the  air-compressor  takes  its 
place. 

Suction-Pumps, — The  word  suction,  when  applied  to 
pumps,  is  a  misnomer.  The  principle  upon  which  such 
pumps  work  is  this :  The  pump  piston  drives  the  air 
out  of  the  pump  cylinder  which  produces  a  vacuum. 
The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  about  fifteen  pounds 
per  square  inch  of  surface.  This  pressure  forces  suffi- 
cient water  up  through  the  so-called  suction  pipe  to  fill 
the  vacuum  in  the  cylinder.  The  water  is  held  in  the 
cylinder  by  foot-valves  or  clack-valves.  As  the  piston 
again  descends  into  the  cylinder  it  plunges  into  water 
instead  of  air.  A  foot-valve  in  the  bottom  end  of  the 
hollow  piston  opens  while  going  down  and  closes  to 
hold  and  lift  the  water  as  the  piston  rises.  Water 
from  the  well  is  forced  by  atmospheric  pressure  to  fol- 
low the  piston  and  the  pump  continues  to  lift  water  so 
long  as  the  joints  remain  air-tight.  The  size  of  piston 
and  length  of  stroke  depend  on  the  volume  of  water 
required,  the  height  to  which  it  must  be  lifted  and  the 
power  available.  A  small  power  and  a  small  cylinder 
will  lift  a  small  quantity  of  water  to  a  considerable 
height.  But  increasing  the  volume  of  water  requires  a 
larger  pump  and  a  great  increase  in  the  power  to  op- 
erate it.    The  size  of  the  delivery  pipe  has  a  good  deal 


1Q2 


FIRM  MECHANICS 


Figure  115. — The  Farm  Pump.  It  superseded  the  iron-bound 
bucket,  the  slimy  old  bucket,  the  malaria-lined  bucket  that  hung 
in  the  well,  but  it  wore  out  the  women.  Oil  was  never  wasted  on  its 
creaking  joints.  Later  it  was  fitted  with  a  stuflSng-box  and  an  air- 
chamber,  and  the  plunger  was  hitched  to  the  windmill. 

To  the  right  are  shown  two  kinds  of  post-hole  diggers.  The  upper 
digger  is  sometimes  used  to  clear  the  fine  earth  out  of  the  bottom 
of  a  hole  dug  by  the  lower  digger. 


to  do  with  the  flow  of  water.  When  water  is  forced 
through  a  small  pipe  at  considerable  velocity,  there  is  a 
good  deal  of  friction.    Often  thje  amount  of  water  de- 


DRIVEN  MACHINES 


103 


livered  is  reduced  because  the  discharge  pipe  is  too 
small.  Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its 
capacity  four  times.  Square  turns  in  the  discharge 
pipe  are  obstructions ;  either  the  pipe  must  be  larger 
or  there  will  be  a  diminished  flow  of  water.  Some 
pump  makers  are  particular  to  furnish  easy  round 
bends  instead  of  the  ordinary  right-angled  elbows.  A 
great  many  pumps  are  working  under  unnecessary 


Figure  116. — Hand  Force-Pump.     Showing  two  \yays  of  attaching 
wooden  handles  to  hand  force-pumps. 

handicaps,  simply  because  either  the  supply  pipe  or 
discharge  pipe  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pump,  or  the  arrangement  of  the  pipes  is  faulty. 
Rotary  Pumps, — ^A  twin-chamber  rotary  pump  ad- 
mits water  at  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  and  forces  it 
out  through  the  top.  Intermeshing  cogs  and  rotary 
cams  revolve  outward  from  the  center  at  the  bottom,  as 
shown  by  the  arrows  in  Figure  118.  The  stream  of 
water  is  divided  by  the  cams,  as  it  enters  the  supply 
pipe  at  the  bottom,  and  half  of  the  water  is  carried 
each  way  around  the  outsides  of  the  double  chamber. 
These  streams  of  water  meet  at  the  top  of  the  cham- 
ber, where  they  unite  to  fill  the  discharge  pipe.    These 


104 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Figure  117. — Rotary  Pump.  Twin  water-chamber  rotary  pumps 
take  water  through  the  bottom  and  divide  the  supply,  carrying  half 
of  the  stream  around  to  the  left  and  the  other  half  to  the  right. 
The  two  streams  meet  and  are  discharged  at  the  top. 


Figure  118.— Section  of  Rotary  Pump. 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  105 

pumps  operate  without  air-chambers  and  supply  water 
in  a  continuous  stream.  They  may  be  speeded  up  to 
throw  water  under  high  pressure  for  fire  fighting,  but 
for  economy  in  ordinary  use  the  speed  is  kept  down  to 
200  revolutions,  or  thereabout.  Eotary  pumps  are  also 
made  with  one  single  water  chamber  cylinder.  The 
pump  head,  or  shaft,  is  placed  a  little  off  center.  A 
double  end  cam  moves  the  water.  Both  ends  of  the 
cam  fit  against  the  bore  of  the  cylinder.  It  works 
loosely  back  and  forth  through  a  slotted  opening  in  the 
pump  head.  As  the  shaft  revolves  the  eccentric  motion 
of  the  double  cam  changes  the  sizes  of  the  water-pock- 
ets. The  pockets  are  largest  at  the  intake  and  smallest 
at  the  discharge.  Rotary  pumps  are  comparatively 
cheap,  as  regards  first  cost,  but  they  are  not  economi- 
cal of  power.  In  places  where  the  water-table  is  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground  they  will  throw  water  in  a 
very  satisfactory  manner.  But  they  are  more  used  in 
refineries  and  factories  for  special  work,  such  as  pump- 
ing oil  and  other  heavy  liquids. 

Centrifugal  Pumps. — The  invention  and  improve- 
ment of  modern  centrifugal  pumps  has  made  the  lift- 
ing of  water  in  large  quantities  possible.  These  pumps 
are  constructed  on  the  turbine  principle.  Water  is 
lifted  in  a  continuous  stream  by  a  turbine  wheel  re- 
volving under  high  speed.  Water  is  admitted  at  the 
center  and  discharged  at  the  outside  of  the  casing. 
Centrifugal  pumps  work  best  at  depths  ranging  from 
twenty  to  sixty  feet.  Manufacturers  claim  that  farm- 
ers can  afford  to  lift  irrigation  water  sixty  feet  with  a 
centrifugal  pump  driven  by  a  kerosene  engine. 

The  illustrations  show  the  principle  upon  which  the 
pump  works  and  the  most  approved  way  of  setting 


106  FARM  MECHANICS 

pumps  and  engines.  Centrifugal  pumps  usually  are 
set  in  dry  wells  a  few  feet  above  the  water-table.  While 
these  pumps  have  a  certain  amount  of  suction,  it  is 
found  that  short  supply  pipes  are  much  more  efficient. 
Where  water  is  found  in  abundance  within  from  15  to 
30  feet  of  the  surface,  and  the  wells  may  be  so  con- 
structed that  the  pull-down,  or  the  lowering  of  the 


Figure  119. — Centrifugal  Pump.  This  style  of  pump  is  used  in 
many  places  for  irrigation.  It  runs  at  high  speed,  which  varies 
according  to  the  size  of  the  pump.  It  takes  water  at  the  center  and 
discharges  it  at  the  outside  of  the  casing. 

water  while  pumping  is  not  excessive,  then  it  is  pos- 
sible to  lift  water  profitably  to  irrigate  crops  in  the 
humid  sections.  Irrigation  in  such  cases,  in  the  East,  is 
more  in  the  nature  of  insurance  against  drouth.  Valu- 
able crops,  such  as  potatoes  and  strawberries,  may  be 
made  to  yield  double,  or  better,  by  supplying  plenty 
of  moisture  at  the  critical  time  in  crop  development. 
It  is  a  new  proposition  in  eastern  farming  that  is  likely 
to  develop  in  the  near  future. 


DRIVEN  MACHINES 


107 


Air  Pressure  Pump, — Instead  of  pumping  water  out 
of  the  well  some  farmers  pump  air  into  the  well  to  force 
the  water  out.  A  double  compartment  cylindrical  tank 
is  placed  in  the  water  in  the  well.  These  tanks  are  con- 
nected with  the  farm  water  distributing  system  to  be 
carried  in  pipes  to  the  house  and  to  the  stock  stables. 
Air  under  a  pressure  of  from  50  to  100  pounds  per 


Check  Vialve 


(["Air Compressor    Gasoline  Engine^ 

^Droln  CocK  ^To  Water" 

Distribution  System^ 

Submerged  Pump- 

Figure  120. — Air  Pressure  Pump.  Pumping  water  by  air  pressure 
requires  a  large  air  container  capable  of  resisting  a  pressure  of  100 
pounds  per  square  inch.  This  illustration  shows  the  pressure  tank, 
engine,  air-compressor,  well  and  submerged  pump. 

square  inch  is  stored  in  a  steel  tank  above  ground. 
Small  gas-pipes  connect  this  air  pressure  tank  with 
the  air-chamber  of  the-  air-water  tank  in  the  well.  A 
peculiar  automatic  valve  regulates  the  air  so  that  it 
enters  the  compartment  that  is  filled,  or  partly  filled, 
with  water,  and  escapes  from  the  empty  one  so  the  two 
compartments  work  together  alternately.  That  is,  the 
second  chamber  fills  with  water,  while  the  first  cham- 
ber is  being  drawn  upon.  Then  the  first  chamber 
fills  while  the  second  is  being  emptied.     This  system 


108  FARM  MECHANICS 

will  work  in  a  well  as  small  as  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
and  to  a  depth  of  140  feet.  It  might  be  made  to  work 
at  a  greater  depth,  but  it  seems  hardly  practical  to 
do  so  for  the  reason  that,  after  allowing  for  friction  in 
the  pipes,  100  pounds  of  air  pressure  is  necessary  to 
lift  water  150  feet.  An  air  tank  of  considerable  size  is 
needed  to  provide  storage  for  sufficient  air  to  operate 
the  system  without  attention  for  several  days.  Care- 
ful engineering  figures  are  necessary  to  account  for 
the  different  depths  of  farm  wells,  and  the  various 
amounts  of  water  and  power  required.  For  instance : 
The  air  tank  already  contains  1,000  gallons  of  air  at 
atmospheric  pressure — then :  Forcing  1,000  gallons  of 
atmospheric  air  into  a  1,000-gallon  tank  will  give  a 
working  pressure  of  15  pounds  per  square  inch ;  2,000 
gallons,  30  pounds ;  3,000  gallons,  45  pounds,  and  so  on. 
Therefore,  a  pressure  of  100  pounds  in  a  1,000-gallon 
tank  (42  inches  by  14  feet)  would  require  6,600  gallons 
of  free  atmosphere,  in  addition  to  the  original  1,000 
gallons,  and  the  tank  would  then  contain  1,000  gallons 
of  compressed  air  under  a  working  pressure  of  100 
pounds  per  square  inch.  A  one  cylinder  compressor 
6  inches  by  6  inches,  operating  at  a  speed  of  200  E.P.M. 
would  fill  this  tank  to  a  working  pressure  of  100 
pounds  in  about  50  minutes.  One  gallon  of  air  will 
deliver  one  gallon  of  water  at  the  faucet.  But  the 
air  must  have  the  same  pressure  as  the  water,  ^nd  there 
must  be  no  friction.  Thus,  one  gallon  of  air  under  a 
working  pressure  of  forty-five  pounds,  will,  theoretic- 
ally, deliver  one  gallon  of  water  to  a  height  of  100  feet. 
But  it  takes  three  gallons  of  free  air  to  make  one  gal- 
lon of  compressed  air  at  forty-five  pounds  pressure. 
If  the  lift  is  100  feet,  then  1,000  gallons  of  air  under  a 


DRIVEN  MACHINES 


109 


pressure  of  forty-five  pounds  will  theoretically  deliver 
1,000  gallons  of  water.  Practically,  the  air  tank  would 
have  to  be  loaded  to  a  very  much  greater  pressure  to 


Figure  121. —  (1)  Single-Gear  Pump  Jack.  This  type  of  jack  is 
used  for  wells  from  20  to  40  feet  deep.  (2)  Double-Gear,  or 
Multiple-Gear  Pump  Jack.  This  is  a  rather  powerful  jack  designed 
for  deep  wells  or  for  elevating  water  into  a  high  water-tank. 

secure  the  1,000  gallons  of  water  before  losing  the 
elasticity  of  the  compressed  air.  If  one  thousand  gal- 
lons of  water  is  needed  on  the  farm  every  day,  then 
the  air  pump  would  have  to  work  about  one  hour  each 


110 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Figure  122. — Post  Pump  Jack.  This  arrangement  is  used  in  fac- 
tories when  floor  space  is  valuable.  The  wide-face  driving-pulley  is 
shown  to  the  left. 


Figure  123. — Three  Jacks  for  Different  Purposes.  At  the  left  is  a 
reverse  motion  jack  having  the  same  speed  turning  either  right  or 
left.  The  little  jack  in  the  center  is  for  light  work  at  high  belt 
speed.  To  the  right  is  a  powerful  jack  intended  for  slow  speeds 
such  as  hoisting  or  elevating  grain. 


morning.  This  may  not  be  less  expensive  than  pump- 
ing the  water  directly,  but  it  offers  the  advantage  of 
water  fresh  from  the  well.  Pure  air  pumped  into  the 
well  tends  to  keep  the  water  from  becoming  stale. 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  111 

Pump  Jacks  and  Speed  Jacks. — Farm  pumps  and 
speed-reducing  jacks  are  partners  in  farm  pumping. 


Figure  124. — ^Speed  Jack,  for  reducing  speed  between  engine  and 
tumbling  rod  or  to  increase  speed  between  tumbling  rod  and  the 
driven  machine. 


Figure  125. — The  Speed  Jack  on  the  left  is  used  either  to  reduce 
or  increase  tumbling  rod  speed  and  to  reverse  the  motion.  The 
Speed  Jack  on  the  right  transfers  power  either  from  belt  to  tumbling 
rod  or  reverse.  It  transforms  high  belt  speed  to  low  tumbling  rod 
speed,  or  vice  versa. 

Force-pumps  should  not  run  faster  than  forty  strokes 
per  minute.  Considerable  power  is  required  to  move 
the  piston  when  the  water  is  drawn  from  a  deep  well 


112  FARM  MECHANICS 

and  forced  into  an  overhead  tank.  Jacks  are  manufac- 
tured which  bolt  directly  to  the  pump,  and  there  are 
pumps  and  jacks  built  together.  A  pump  jack  should 
have  good,  solid  gearing  to  reduce  the  speed.  Spur- 
gearing  is  the  most  satisfactory.  Bevel-gears  are  waste- 
ful of  power  when  worked  under  heavy  loads.  Power 
to  drive  a  pump  jack  is  applied  to  a  pulley  at  least 
twelve  inches  in  diameter  with  a  four-inch  face  when 
belting  is  used.  If  a  rope  power  conveyor  is  -used, 
then  pulleys  of  larger  diameters  are  required  to  con- 
vey the  same  amount  of  power. 

Only  general  terms  may  be  used  in  describing  the 
farm  pump,  because  the  conditions  differ  in  each  case. 
Generally  speaking,  farmers  fail  to  appreciate  the 
amount  of  power  used,  and  they  are  more  than  likely 
to  buy  a  jack  that  is  too  light.  Light  machinery  may 
do  the  work,  but  it  goes  to  pieces  quicker,  while  a  heavy 
jack  with  solid  connections  will  operate  the  pump  year 
in  and  year  out  without  making  trouble.  For  in- 
creasing or  reducing  either  speed  or  power  some  kind 
of  jack  is  needed.  All  farm  machines  have  their  best 
speed.  A  certain  number  of  revolutions  per  minute 
will  accomplish  more  and  do  better  work  than  any 
other  speed.  To  apply  power  to  advantage  speed  jacks 
have  been  invented  to  adjust  the  inaccuracies  between 
driver  and  driven. 

IRRIGATION  BY  PUMPING 

The  annual  rainfall  in  the  United  States  varies  in 
diflerei^t  parts  of  the  country  from  a  few  inches  to  a 
few  feet.  Under  natural  conditions  some  soils  get  too 
much  moisture  and  some  too  little.  Irrigation  is  em- 
ployed to  supply  the  deficiency  and  drainage,  either 


DRIVEN  MACHINES 


113 


natural  or  artificial,  carries  off  the  excess.  Irrigation 
and  drainage  belong  together.  Irrigation  fills  the  soil 
with  moisture  and  drainage  empties  it.  Thus,  a  con- 
dition is  established  that  supplies  valuable  farm  plants 
with  both  air  and  moisture.  In  the  drier  portions  of 
the  United  States,  nothing  of  value  will  grow  without 


Figure  126. — Centrifugal  Pump  Setting.  When  used  for  irriga- 
tion, centrifugal  pumps  are  set  as  close  to  the  ground  water  as 
practical. 

irrigation.  In  the  so-called  humid  districts  deficiency 
of  moisture  at  the  critical  time  reduces  the  yield  and 
destroys  the  profit.  The  value  of  irrigation  has  been 
demonstrated  in  the  West,  and  the  practice  is  working 
eastward. 

Irrigation  is  the  new  handmaiden  of  prosperity.  A 
rainy  season  is  a  bountiful  one.  Irrigation  supplies 
the  bounty  without  encouraging  destructive  fungus 


114  FARM  MECHANICS 

diseases.  Where  water  is  abundant  within  easy  reach, 
pumping  irrigation  water  is  thoroughly  practical. 
Improvements  in  pumps  in  recent  years  have  increased 
their  capacity  and  insured  much  greater  reliability. 
A  centrifugal  pump  is  recommended  for  depths  down 
to  75  feet ;  beyond  this  depth  the  necessity  of  installing 
more  expensive  machinery  places  the  business  of  pump- 
ing for  irrigation  on  a  different  plane.  A  centrifugal 
pump  will  throw  more  water  with  less  machinery  than 
any  other  device,  but  like  all  other  mechanical  inven- 
tions, it  has  its  limitations.  In  figuring  economical 
pumping,  the  minimum  quantity  should  be  at  least  100 
gallons  per  minute,  because  time  is  an  object,  and  irri- 
gation, if  done  at  all,  should  cover  an  area  sufficient  to 
bring  substantial  returns.  Centrifugal  pumps  should 
be  placed  near  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well. 
For  this  reason,  a  large,  dry  well  is  dug  down  to 
the  level  of  the  water-table  and  the  pump  is  solidly 
bolted  to  a  concrete  foundation  built  on  the  bottom  of 
this  well.  A  supply  pipe  may  be  extended  any  depth 
below  the  pump,  but  the  standing  water  surface  in  the 
well  should  reach  within  a  few  feet  of  the  pump.  The 
pump  and  supply  must  be  so  well  balanced  against 
each  other  that  the  pull-down  from  pumping  will  not 
lower  the  water-level  in  the  well  more  than  twenty  feet 
below  the  pump.  The  nearer  the  ground  water  is  to 
the  pump  the  better. 

The  water  well  below  the  pump  may  be  bored,  or  a 
perforated  well  pipe  may  be  driven;  or  several  well 
points  may  be  connected.  The  kind  of  well  must  de- 
pend upon  the  condition  of  the  earth  and  the  nature 
of  the  water  supply.  Driven  wells  ^re  more  successful 
when  water  is  found  in  a  stratum  of  coarse  gravel. 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  115 

Before  buying  irrigation  machinery,  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  test  tlie  water  supply  by  temporary  means. 
Any  good  farm  pump  may  be  hitched  to  a  gasoline  en- 
gine to  determine  if  the  water  supply  is  lasting  or  not. 
Permanent  pumping  machinery  should  deliver  the  wa- 
ter on  high  ground.  A  main  irrigation  ditch  may  be 
run  across  the  upper  end  of  the  field.  This  ditch 
should  hold  the  water  high  enough  so  it  may  be  tapped 
at  convenient  places  to  run  through  the  corrugations  to 
reach  the  roots  of  the  plants  to  be  benefited.  There  are 
different  systems  of  irrigation  designed  to  fit  different 
soils.  Corrugations  are  the  cheapest  and  the  most 
satisfactory  when  soils  are  loose  enough  to  permit  the 
water  to  soak  into  the  soil  sideways,  as  well  as  to  sink 
down.  The  water  should  penetrate  the  soil  on  both 
sides  of  the  corrugations  for  distances  of  several  inches. 
Corrugations  should  be  straight  and  true  and  just  far 
enough  apart  so  the  irrigation  water  will  soak  across 
and  meet  between.  Some  soils  will  wash  or  gully  out 
if  the  fall  is  too  rapid.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  terrace  the  land  by  following  the  natural  con- 
tour around  the  ridges  so  the  water  may  flow  gently. 
Where  the  fall  is  very  slight,  that  is,  where  the  ground 
is  so  nearly  level  that  it  slopes  away  less  than  six  inches 
in  a  hundred  feet,  it  becomes  necessary. to  prepare  the 
land  by  building  checks  and  borders  to  confine  the 
water  for  a  certain  length  of  time.  Then  it  is  let  out 
into  the  next  check.  In  the  check  and  border  system 
the  check  bank  on  the  lower  side  has  an  opening  which 
is  closed  during  the  soaking  period  with  a  canvas  dam. 
When  the  canvas  is  lifted  the  water  flows  through  and 
fills  the  next  check.  This  system  is  more  expensive, 
and  it  requires  more  knowledge  of  irrigation  to  get  it 


116  FARM  MECHANICS 

started,  and  it  is  not  likely  to  prove  satisfactory  in  the 
East. 

For  fruits  and  vegetables,  what  is  known  asi  the  fur- 
row system  of  irrigation  is  the  most  practical.  An  or- 
chard is  irrigated  by  plowing  furrows  on  each  side  of 
each  row  of  trees.  The  water  is  turned  into  these  fur- 
rows and  it  runs  across  the  orchard  like  so  many  little 
rivulets.  Potatoes  are  irrigated  on  the  same  plan  by 
running  water  through  between  the  rows  after  the  po- 
tatoes have  been  ridged  by  a  double  shovel-plow.  This 
plan  also  works  well  with  strawberries.  After  the  land 
is  prepared  for  irrigation,  the  expense  of  supplying 
water  to  a  fruit  orchard,  strawberry  patch  or  potato 
field  is  very  little  compared  with  the  increi.se  in  yield. 
In  fact,  there  are  seasons  when  one  irrigation  will  save 
the  crop  and  produce  an  abundant  yield,  when  other- 
wise it  would  have  been  almost  a  total  loss. 

Overhead  Spray  Irrigation. — The  most  satisfactory 
garden  irrigation  is  the  overhead  spray  system.  Posts 
are  set  ten  feet  apart  in  rows  50  feet  apart.  Water 
pipes  are  laid  on  the  tops  of  the  posts  and  held  loosely 
in  position  by  large  staples.  These  water  pipes  are 
perforated  by  drilling  a  line  of  small  holes  about  three 
feet  apart  in  a  straight  line  along  one  side  of  the  pipe. 
The  holes  are  tapped  and  small  brass  nozzles  are 
screwed  in.  The  overhead  pipes  are  connected  with 
standpipes  at  the  highest  place,  generally  at  the  ends 
of  the  rows.  The  pipe-lines  are  loosely  coupled  to  the 
standpipes  to  permit  them  to  roll  partly  around  to  di- 
rect the  hundreds  of  spray  nozzles  as  needed. 

Six  feet  high  is  sufficient  to  throw  a  fine  mist  or 
spray  twenty-five  feet,  which  is  far  enough  to  meet  the 
spray  from  the  next  row,  so  the  ground  will  be  com- 


DRIVEN  MACHINES 


117 


pletely  covered.  To  do  this  the  pipes  are  rolled  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  through  a  90  degree  arc  to  throw 
the  spray  on  both  sides.  The  pipes  usually  are  laid 
with  a  grade  which  follows  down  the  slope  of  the  land. 
A  fall  of  one  foot  in  fifty  is  sufficient.  Water  is  always 
admitted  at  the  upper  end  of  each  pipe-line  to  flow 


25' 

so- 

so- 

SO' 

Z5' 

1      "• 

1             - 

H 

— p 

§! 

1  • 
i| 

!±r-_ 

■  — 

"200- 



Li; 

Figure  127. — Overhead  Irrigation.  Diagram  showing  the  arrange- 
ment of  pipes  for  irrigating  one  acre  of  land.  The  pipes  are  sup- 
ported on  posts  six  feet  high. 


down  by  gravity,  assisted  by  tank  pressure.  A  pres- 
sure of  about  forty  pounds  is  needed  to  produce  a  fine 
spray,  and  to  send  it  across  to  meet  the  opposite  jets. 
The  little  brass  nozzles  are  drilled  with  about  a  one- 
eighth  inch  hollow.  But  the  jet  opening  is  small, 
about  No.  20  W.  G.  This  gives  a  wire-drawn  stream 
that  quickly  vaporizes  when  it  meets  the  resistance  of 
the  atmosphere.  When  properly  installed  a  fine  misty 
rain  is  created,  which  quickly  takes  the  same  tempera- 


118  FARM  MECHANICS 

ture  as  the  air,  and  settles  so  gently  that  the  most 
delicate  plants  are  not  injured. 

Quantity  of  Water  to  Use. — Good  judgment  is  neces- 
sary in  applying  water  to  crops  in  regard  to  quantity, 
as  well  as  the  time  of  making  application.  Generally 
speaking,  it  is  better  to  wait  until  the  crop  really  needs 
moisture.  When  the  pump  is  started  give  the  crop 
plenty  with  the  expectation  that  one  irrigation  will  be 
sufficient.  Much  depends  upon  the  amount  of  moist- 
ure in  the  soil ;  also  the  kind  of  crop  and  weather  con- 
ditions enter  into  the  problem.  On  sandy  land  that  is 
very  dry  where  drainage  is  good,  water  may  be  per- 
mitted to  run  in  the  corrugations  for  several  days  un- 
til the  ground  is  thoroughly  soaked.  When  potatoes 
are  forming,  or  clover  is  putting  down  its  big  root  sys- 
tem, a  great  deal  of  water  is  needed.  Irrigation  suffi- 
cient to  make  two  inches  of  rainfall  may  be  used  to 
advantage  for  such  crops  under  ordinary  farming  con- 
ditions. It  is  necessary  after  each  irrigation  to  break 
the  soil  crust  by  cultivation  to  prevent  evaporation. 
This  is  just  as  important  after  irrigation  as  it  is  after 
a  rain  shower.  Also  any  little  pockets  that  hold  water 
must  be  carefully  drained  out,  otherwise  the  crop  will 
be  injured  by  standing  water.  We  are  not  supposed 
to  have  such  pockets  on  land  that  has  been  prepared 
for  irrigation. 

Kind  of  Crops  to  Irrigate. — Wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc., 
may  be  helped  with  one  irrigation  from  imminent  fail- 
ure to  a  wealth  of  production.  But  these  rainfall 
grain  crops  do  not  come  under  the  general  classifica- 
tion that  interests  the  regular  irrigation  farmer  beyond 
his  diversity  plans  for  producing  considerable  variety. 
Fruits,  roots,  clover,  alfalfa,  vegetables  and  Indian 
corn  are  money  crops  under  irrigation.    Certain  seed 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  119 

crops  yield  splendidly  when  watered.  An  apple  or- 
chard properly  cared  for  and  irrigated  just  at  the  right 
time  will  pay  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  dollars 
per  acre.  Small  fruits  are  just  as  valuable.  These 
successes  account  for  the  high  prices  of  irrigated  land. 
In  the  East  and  in  the  great  Middle  West,  valuable 
crops  are  cut  short  or  ruined  by  drouth  when  the  fruit 
or  corn  is  forming.  It  makes  no  difference  how  much 
rain  comes  along  at  other  times  in  the  year,  if  the  roots 
cannot  find  moisture  at  the  critical  time,  the  yield  is 
reduced  often  below  the  profit  of  raising  and  harvest- 
ing the  crop.  Strawberry  blossoms  shrivel  and  die 
in  the  blooming  when  rain  fails.  Irrigation  is  better 
than  rain  for  strawberries.  Strawberries  under  irri- 
gation may  be  made  to  yield  more  bushels  than  potatoes 
-under  humid  conditions.  One  hundred  bushels  of 
strawberries  per  acre  sounds  like  a  fairy  tale,  but  it  is 
possible  on  rich  land  under  irrigation. 

The  cost  of  pumping  for  irrigation,  where  the  well 
and  machinery  is  used  for  no  other  purpose,  must  be 
charged  up  to  the  crop.  The  items  of  expense  are  in- 
terest on  the  first  cost  of  the  pumping  machinery,  de- 
preciation, upkeep  and  running  expenses.  On  East- 
ern farms,  however,  where  diversified  farming  is  the 
business,  this  expense  may  be  divided  among  the  dif- 
ferent lines  of  work.  Where  live-stock  is  kept,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a  good,  reliable  water  sup{)ly  for 
the  animals.  A  reservoir  on  high  ground  so  water  may 
be  piped  to  the  watering  troughs  and  to  the  house  is  a 
great  convenience.  Also  the  same  engine  that  does  the 
pumping  may  be  used  for  other  work  in  connection 
with  the  farm,  so  that  the  irrigation  pump  engine,  in- 
stead of  lying  idle  ten  or  eleven  months  in  the  year, 
may  be  utilized  to  advantage  and  made  to  earn  its  keep. 


120 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Well-water  contains  many  impurities.  For  this  rea- 
son, it  is  likely  to  be  valuable  for  crop  growing  pur- 
poses in  a  wider  sense  than  merely  to  supply  moisture. 
Well-water  contains  lime,  and  lime  is  beneficial  to  most 
soils.  It  has  been  noticed  that  crops  grow  especially 
well  when  irrigated  from  wells. 


SUPPORT 


Figure  128. — Power  Transmission.  Circular  motion  is  converted 
into  reciprocating  motion  by  the  different  lengths  of  the  two  pitman 
cranks  which  cause  the  upper  wheel  to  oscillate.  Power  is  carried 
to  a  distance  by  wires.  To*  reduce  friction  the  wires  are  supported 
by  swinging  hangers.  Sometimes  wooden  rods  are  used  instead  of 
wires  to  lessen  expansion  and  contraction. 


House  and  Barns  Supplied  from  a  Reservoir, — A 
farm  reservoir  may  sometimes  be  built  very  cheaply 
by  throwing  a  dam  across  a  narrow  hollow  between  two 
hills,  or  ridges.  On  other  farms,  it  is  necessary  to 
scrape  out  a  hole  on  the  highest  ground  within  reach. 
For  easy  irrigation  a  reservoir  is  necessary,  and  it  is 
economical  because  the  pump  may  work  overtime  and 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  121 

supply  enough  water  so  the  irrigation  may  be 'done 
quickly  and  with  sufficient  water  to  make  it  effective. 
When  the  cost  of  the  reservoir  can  be  charged  up  to 
the  different  departments  of  the  business,  such  as  irri- 
gation, live-stock  and  house  use,  the  cost  is  divided  and 
the  profits  are  multiplied. 

Power  Conveyor, — Circular  motion  is  converted  into 
reciprocal  motion  to  operate  a  pump  at  a  distance  from 
the  engine.  The  short  jack  crank  oscillates  the  driving 
pulley  to  move  the  conveyor  wires  back  and  forth.  The 
distance  to  which  power  may  be  carried  is  limited  by 
the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  conveying  wires. 
Wooden  rods  are  better  under  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture. Where  an  engine  is  used  night  and  morning  in 
the  dairy  house  to  run  a  cream  separator,  this  kind  of 
power  transmission  may  be  worked  to  operate  the 
pump  at  the  house.  Light  wire  hangers  will  support 
the  line  wires  or  rods.  They  should  be  about  three 
feet  in  length,  made  fast  at  top  and  bottom  to  prevent 
wear.  The  spring  of  a  No.  10  wire  three  feet  long  is 
sufficient  to  swing  the  length  of  a  pump  stroke  and  the 
friction  is  practically  nothing. 

ELECTRICITY   ON   THE  FARM 

Electric  current  in  some  sections  may  be  purchased 
from  electric  railways  or  city  lighting  plants.  But  the 
great  majority  of  farms  are  beyond  the  reach  of  high 
tension  transmission  cables.  In  some  places  three  or 
four  farmers  may  club  together  and  buy  a  small  light- 
ing plant  to  supply  their  own  premises  with  both  light 
and  power.  Unless  an  engineer  is  employed  to  run  it 
trouble  is  sure  to  follow,  because  one  family  does  all  of 
the  work  and  others  share  equally  in  the  benefits.  The 
solution  is  for  each  farmer  to  install  a  small  plant  of 


122 


FARM  MECHANICS 


his  own.  The  proposition  is  not  so  difficult  as  it  sounds. 
Two-horsepower  plants  are  manufactured  for  this  very 
purpose.  But  there  is  more  to  it  than  buying  a  dy- 
namo and  a  few  lamp  bulbs.  A  farm  electric  system 
should  supply  power  to  run  all  of  the  light  stationary 
machinery  about  the  farm,  and  that  means  storage 


Figure  129. — Electric  Power  Plant.  A  practical  farm  generator 
and  storage  battery,  making  a  complete  farm  electric  plant  that  will 
develop  and  store  electricity  for  instant  use  in  any  or  all  of  the 
farm  buildings. 


batteries,  and  the  use  of  one  or  more  small  electric  mo- 
tors. There  are  several  ways  to  arrange  the  plant, 
but  to  save  confusion  it  is  better  to  study  first  the  stor- 
age battery  plan  and  to  start  with  an  engine  large 
enough  to  pump  water  and  run  the  dynamo  at  the  same 
time.  It  is  a  good  way  to  do  two  jobs  at  once — ^you 
store  water  enough  in  the  supply  tank  to  last  twenty- 
four  or  forty-eight  hours,  and  at  the  same  time  you 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  123 

store  up  sufficient  electricity  to  run  the  cream-separa- 
tor for  a  week.  Electric  power  is  the  only  power  that 
is  steady  enough  to  get  all  of  the  cream. 

Refrigeration  is  a  profitable  way  to  use  electric  pow- 
er. There  are  small  automatic  refrigerator  machines 
that  maintain  low  temperatures  to  preserve  food  prod- 
ucts. This  branch  of  the  work  may  be  made  profitable. 
Laundry  work  on  the  farm  was  principally  hand  labor 
until  the  small  power  washers  and  wringers  were  in- 
vented. Now  a  small  electric  motor  takes  the  blue  out 
of  Monday,  and  the  women  wear  smiles.  Electric  flat- 
irons  afford  the  greatest  comfort  on  Tuesday.  The 
proper  heat  is  maintained  continually  until  the  last 
piece  is  ironed.  Cooking  by  electricity  is  another  great 
success.  Some  women  buy  separate  cooking  utensils, 
such  as  toasters,  chafing  dishes  and  coffee  percolators. 
Others  invest  in  a  regular  electric  cooking  range  at  a 
cost  of  fifty  dollars  and  feel  that  the  money  was  well 
spent.  It  takes  about  100  K.W.H.  per  month  in  hot 
weather  to  cook  by  electricity  for  a  family  of  four.  In 
winter,  when  heat  is  more  of  a  luxury,  the  coal  or  wood 
range  will  save  half  of  the  electric  current.  Dishwash- 
ing by  electricity  is  another  labor-saver  three  times  a 
day.  Vacuum  cleaners  run  by  electricity  take  the  dust 
and  microbes  out  of  floor  rugs  with  less  hand  labor 
than  pushing  a  carpet  sweeper.  Incubators  are  better 
heated  by  electricity  than  any  other  way.  Brooders 
come  under  the  same  class.  Sewing-machines  were  op- 
erated by  electricity  in  sweatshops  years  ago — because 
it  paid.  Farm  women  are  now  enjoying  the  same  privi- 
lege. 

Electric  lighting  on  the  farm  is  the  most  spectacular, 
if  not  the  most  interesting  result  of  electric  generation 
in  the  country.    This  feature  of  the  subject  was  some- 


124  FARM  MECHANICS 

what  overtaxed  by  talkative  salesmen  representing* 
some  of  the  pioneer  manufacturers  of  electric  lighting 
plants,  but  the  business  has  steadied  down.  Real  elec- 
tric generating  machinery  is  being  manufactured  and 
sold  on  its  merits  in  small  units. 

Not  many  miles  from  Chicago  there  is  an  electric 
lighting  plant  on  a  dairy  farm  that  is  giving  satisfac- 
tion. The  stables  are  large  and  they  are  managed  on 
the  plan  of  milking  early  in  the  morning  and  again  in 
the  middle  of  the  afternoon.  The  morning  work  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  light  in  the  different  stables, 
more  light  than  ordinary,  because  the  milking  is  done 
by  machinery.  The  milking  machine  air-pump  is 
driven  by  electricity  generated  on  the  farm,  the  power 
being  supplied  by  a  kerosene  engine. 

Electricity  on  this  farm  is  used  in  units,  separate 
lines  extending  to  the  different  buildings.  The  light- 
ing plant  is  operated  on  what  is  known  as  the  32-volt 
system ;  the  rating  costs  less  to  install  than  some  others 
and  the  maintenance  is  less  than  when  a  higher  volt- 
age is  used.  I  noticed  also  that  there  are  fewer  parts 
in  connection  with  the  plant  than  in  other  electric  light 
works  that  I  have  examined. 

Technical  knowledge  of  electricity  and  its  behavior 
under  different  circumstances  is  hardly  necessary  to  a 
farmer,  because  the  manufacturers  have  simplified  the 
mechanics  of  electric  power  and  lighting  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  it  is  only  necessary  to  use  ordinary  precau- 
tion to  run  the  plant  to  its  capacity. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  just  as  well  to  know  something 
about  generators,  switchboards  and  the  meanings  of 
such  terms  and  names  as  volt,  ampere,  battery  poles, 
voltmeter,  ammeter,  rheostat,  discharge  switch,  under- 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  125 

load  circuit  breaker,  false  fuse  blocks,  etc.,  because 
familiarity  with  these  names,  and  the  parts  they  rep- 
resent gives  the  person  confidence  in  charging  the  bat- 
teries. Such  knowledge  also  supplies  a  reason  for  the 
one  principal  battery  precaution,  which  is  not  to  use 
out  all  of  the  electricity  the  batteries  contain. 

Those  who  have  electric  lighting  plants  on  the  farm 
do  not  seem  to  feel  the  cost  of  running  the  plants,  be- 
cause they  use  the  engine  for  other  purposes.  Gen- 
erally manufacturers  figure  about  1  H.P.  extra  to  run 
a  dynamo  to  supply  from  25  to  50  lights.  My  experi- 
ence with  farm  engines  is  that  for  ordinary  farm  work 
such  as  driving  the  cream  separator,  working  the  pump 
and  grinding  feed,  a  two-horse  power  engine  is  more 
useful  than  any  other  size.  Farmers  who  conduct 
business  in  the  usual  way  will  need  a  three-horsepower 
engine  if  they  contemplate  adding  an  electric  lighting 
system  to  the  farm  equipment. 

Among  the  advantages  of  an  electric  lighting  sys- 
tem is  the  freedom  from  care  on  the  part  of  the  women. 
There  are  no  lamps  to  clean  or  broken  chimneys  to  cut 
a  finger,  so  that  when  the  system  is  properly  installed 
the  only  work  the  women  have  to  do  is  to  turn  the 
switches  to  throw  the  lights  on  or  off  as  needed. 

The  expense  in  starting  a  farm  electric  light  plant 
may  be  a  little  more  than  some  other  installations,  but 
it  seems  to  be  more  economical  in  service  when  figured 
from  a  farmer's  standpoint,  taking  into  consideration 
the  fact  that  he  is  using  power  for  generating  electric- 
ity that  under  ordinary  farm  management  goes  to 
waste. 

A  three-horsepower  engine  will  do  the  same  amount 
of  work  with  the  sarae  amount  of  gasoline  that  a  two- 


126  FARM  MECHANICS 

horsepower  engine  will  do.  This  statement  may  not 
hold  good  when  figured  in  fractions,  but  it  will  in  farm 
practice.  Also  when  running  a  pump  or  cream  sepa- 
tor  the  engine  is  capable  of  doing  a  little  extra  work 
so  that  the  storage  batteries  may  be  c)iarged  with  very 
little  extra  expense. 

On  one  dairy  farm  a  five-horsepower  kerosene  engine 
is  used  to  furnish  power  for  various  farm  purposes. 
The  engine  is  belted  to  a  direct-current  generator  of 
the  shunt-wound  type.  The  generator  is  wired  to  an 
electric  storage  battery  of  88  ampere  hour  capacity. 
The  battery  is  composed  of  a  number  of  separate  cells. 
The  cells  are  grouped  together  in  jars.  These  jars  con- 
tain the  working  parts  of  the  batteries.  As  each  jar 
of  the  battery  is  complete  in  itself,  any  one  jar  may  be 
cut  out  or  another  added  without  affecting  the  other 
units.  The  switchboard  receives  current  either  from 
the  battery  or  from  the  engine  and  generator  direct. 
There  are  a  number  of  switches  attached  to  the  switch- 
board, which  may  be  manipulated  to  turn  the  current 
in  any  direction  desired. 

Some  provision  should  be  made  for  the  renewal  of 
electric  lamps.  Old  lamps  give  less  light  than  new 
ones,  and  the  manufacturers  should  meet  customers  on 
some  kind  of  a  fair  exchange  basis.  Tungsten  lamps 
are  giving  good  satisfaction  for  farm  use.  These 
lamps  are  economical  of  current,  which  means  a  reduc- 
tion of  power  to  supply  the  same  amount  of  light.  The 
Mazda  lamp  is  another  valuable  addition  to  the  list  of 
electric  lamps. 

The  Wisconsin  Agriculturist  publishes  a  list  of  104 
different  uses  for  electricity  on. farms.  Many  of  the 
electrical  machines  are  used  for  special  detail  work 
in  dairies  where  cheese  or  butter  is  made  in  quantity. 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  127 

Sugar  plantations  also  require  small  units  of  power 
that  would  not  apply  to  ordinary  farming.  Some  of 
the  work  mentioned  is  extra  heavy,  such  as  threshing 
and  cutting  ensilage.  Other  jobs  sound  trivial,  but 
they  are  all  possible  labor-savers.    Here  is  the  list : 

*'Oat  crushers,  alfalfa  mills,  horse  groomers,  horse 
clippers,  hay  cutters,  clover  cutters,  corn  shellers,  en- 
silage cutters,  corn  crackers,  branding  irons,  currying 
machines,  feed  grinders,  flailing  machines,  live  stock 
food  warmers,  sheep  shears,  threshers,  grain  graders, 
root  cutters,  bone  grinders,  hay  hoists,  clover  hullers, 
rice  threshers,  pea  and  bean  hullers,  gas-electric  har- 
vesters, hay  balers,  portable  motors  for  running  thresh- 
ers, fanning-mills,  grain  elevators,  buskers  and  shred- 
ders, grain  drying  machines,  binder  motors,  wheat  and 
corn  grinders,  milking  machines,  sterilizing  milk,  re- 
frigeration, churns,  cream-separators,  butter  workers,, 
butter  cutting-printing,  milk  cooling  and  circulating 
pumps,  milk  clarifiers,  cream  ripeners,  milk  mixers, 
butter  tampers,  milk  shakers,  curd  grinders,  pasteuri- 
zers, bottle  cleaners,  bottle  fillers,  concrete  mixers, 
cider  mills,  cider  presses,  spraying  machines,  wood 
splitters,  auto  trucks,  incubators,  hovers,  telephones, 
electric  bells,  ice  cutters,  fire  alarms,  electric  vehicles, 
electro  cultures,  water  supply,  pumping,  water  steril- 
izers, fruit  presses,  blasting  magnetos,  lighting,  inte- 
rior telephones,  vulcanizers,  pocket  flash  lights,  ice 
breakers,  grindstones,  emery  wheels,  wood  saws,  drop 
hammers,  soldering  irons,  glue  pots,  cord  wood  saws, 
egg  testers,  burglar  alarms,  bell  ringing  transformers, 
devices  for  killing  insects  and  pests,  machine  tools, 
molasses  heaters,  vacuum  cleaners,  portable  lamps  to 
attract  insects,  toasters,  hot  plates,  grills,  percolators, 
flatirons,  ranges,  toilette  articles,  water  heaters,  fans, 


128  FARM  MECHANICS 

egg  boilers,  heating  pads,  dishwashers,  washing  ma- 
chines, curling  irons,  forge  blowers. ' ' 

GASOLINE  HOUSE  LIGHTING 

Gasoline  gas  for  house  lighting  is  manufactured  in  a 
small  generator  by  evaporating  gasoline  into  gas  and 
mixing  it  with  air,  about  5  per  cent  gas  and  95  per  cent 
air.  We  are  all  familiar  with  the  little  brass  gasoline 
torch  heater  that  tinners  and  plumbers  use  to  heat 
their  soldering  irons.    The  principle  is  the  same. 

There  are  three  systems  of  using  gasoline  gas  for 
farmhouse  lighting  purposes,  the  hollow  wire,  tube  sys- 
tem, and  single  lamp  system. 

The  hollow  wire  system  carries  the  liquid  gasoline 
through  the  circuit  in  a  small  pipe  called  a  hollow  wire. 
Each  lamp  on  the  circuit  takes  a  few  drops  of  gasoline 
as  needed,  converts  it  into  gas,  mixes  the  gas  with  the 
proper  amount  of  air  and  produces  a  fine  brilliant 
light.  Each  lamp  has  its  own  little  generator  and  is 
independent  of  all  other  lamps  on  the  line. 

The  tube  system  of  gasoline  gas  lighting  is  similar  in 
appearance,  but  the  tubes  are  larger  and  look  more  like 
regular  gas  pipes.  In  the  tube  system  the  gas  is  gener- 
ated and  mixed  with  air  before  it  gets  into  the  distri- 
bution tube,  so  that  lamps  do  not  require  separate  gen- 
erators. 

In  the  separate  lamp  system  each  lamp  is  separate 
and  independent.  Each  lamp  has  a  small  supply  of 
gasoline  in  the  base  of  the  lamp  and  has  a  gas  genera- 
tor attached  to  the  burner,  which  converts  the  gasoline 
into  gas,  mixes  it  with  the  proper  amount  of  air  and 
feeds  it  into  the  burner  as  required.  Farm  lanterns  are 
manufactured  that  work  on  this  principle.  They  pro- 
duce a  brilliant  light. 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  129 

By  investigating  the  different  systems  of  gasoline  gas 
lighting  in  use  in  village  stores  and  country  homes  any 
farmer  can  select  the  system  that  fits  into  his  home  con- 
ditions to  the  best  advantage.  In  one  farmhouse  the 
owner  wanted  gasoline  gas  street  lamps  on  top  of  his 
big  concrete  gateposts,  and  this  was  one  reason  why  he 
decided  to  adopt  gasoline  gas  lighting  and  to  use  the 
separate  lamp  system. 

ACETYLENE   GAS 

Acetylene  lighting  plants  are  intended  for  country 
use  beyond  the  reach  of  city  gas  mains  or  electric 
cables.  Carbide  comes  in  lump  form  in  steel  drums.  It 
is  converted  into  gas  by  a  generator  that  is  fitted  with 
clock  work  to  drop  one  or  more  lumps  into  water  as  gas 
is  needed  to  keep  up  the  pressure.  Acetylene  gas  is 
said  to  be  the  purest  of  all  illuminating  gases.  Experi- 
ments in  growing  delicate  plants  in  greenhouses  lighted 
with  acetylene  seem  to  prove  this  claim  to  be  correct. 

The  light  also  is  bright,  clear  and  powerful.  The 
gas  is  explosive  when  mixed  with  air  and  confined,  so 
that  precautions  are  necessary  in  regard  to  using  lan- 
terns or  matches  near  the  generators.  The  expense  of 
installing  an  acetylene  plant  in  a  farm  home  has  pre- 
vented its  general  use. 

WOOD-SAW  FRAMES 

There  are  a  number  of  makes  of  saw  frames  for  use 
on  farms,  some  of  which  are  very  simple,  while  others 
are  quite  elaborate.  Provision  usually  is  made  for 
dropping  the  end  of  the  stick  as  it  is  cut.  Sometimes 
carriers  are  provided  to  elevate  the  blocks  onto  a  pile. 
Extension  frames  to  hold  both  ends  of  the  stick  give 
more  or  less  trouble,  because  when  the  stick  to  be  sawed 


130  FARM  MECHANICS 

is  crooked,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  binding. 
If  a  saw  binds  in  the  kerf,  very  often  the  uniform  set 
is  pinched  out  of  alignment,  and  there  is  some  danger 
of  buckling  the  saw,  so  that  for  ordinary  wood  sawing 
it  is  better  to  have  the  end  of  the  stick  project  beyond 
the  jig.  If  the  saw  is  sharp  and  has  the  right  set  and 
the  right  motion,  it  will  cut  the  stick  off  quickly  and 
run  free  while  the  end  is  dropping  to  the  ground. 

The  quickest  saw  frames  oscillate,  being  supported 
on  legs  that  are  hinged  to  the  bottom  of  the  frame. 
Oscillating  frames  work  easier  than  sliding  frames. 
Sliding  frames  are  sometimes  provided  with  rollers, 
but  roller  frames  are  not  steady  enough.  For  cross 
sawing  lumber  V-shaped  grooves  are  best.  No  matter 
what  the  feeding  device  is,  it  should  always  be  pro- 
tected by  a  hood  over  the  saw.  The  frame  should  fall 
back  of  its  own  weight,  bringing  the  hood  with  it,  so 
that  the  saw  is  always  covered  except  when  actually 
engaged  with  the  stick.  Saw-mandrels  vary  in  diame- 
ter and  length,  but  in  construction  they  are  much 
alike.  For  wood  sawing  the  shaft  should  be  1%'^  or 
1%''  in  diameter.  The  shaft  runs  in  two  babbitted 
boxes  firmly  bolted  to  the  saw  frame.  The  frame  itself 
should  be  well  made  and  well  braced. 

ROOT  PULPER 

There  are  root  pulpers  with  concave  knives  which' 
slice  roots  in  such  a  way  as  to  bend  the  slices  and  break 
them  into  thousands  of  leafy  shreds.  The  principle  is 
similar  to  bending  a  number  of  sheets  of  paper  so  that 
each  sheet  will  slide  past  the  next  one.  Animals  do 
not  chew  roots  when  fed  in  large  solid  pieces.  Cattle 
choke  trying  to  swallow  them  whole,  but  they  will 
munch  shredded  roots  with  apparent  patience  and  evi- 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  131 

dent  satisfaction.  American  farmers  are  shy  on  roots. 
They  do  not  raise  roots  in  quantities  because  it  re- 
quires a  good  deal  of  hand  labor,  but  roots  make  a 
juicy  laxative  and  they  are  valuable  as  an  appetizer 
and  they  carry  mineral.  Pulped  roots  are  safe  to  feed 
and  they  offer  the  best  mixing  medium  for  crushed 
grains  and  other  concentrated  foods. 

FEED   CRUSHER 

Instead  of  grinding  grain  for  feeding,  we  have  what 
is  known  as  a  crusher  which  operates  on  the  roller-mill 
principle.  It  breaks  the  grains  into  flour  by  crushing 
instead  of  grinding.  It  has  the  advantage  of  doing 
good  work  quickly.  Our  feed  grinding  is  done  in  the 
two-story  corncrib  and  granary.  It  is  one  of  the  odd 
jobs  on  the  farm  that  every  man  likes.  The  grain  is 
fed  automatically  into  the  machine  by  means  of  the 
grain  spouts  which  lead  the  different  kinds  of  grain 
down  from  the  overhead  bins.  The  elevator  buckets 
carry  the  crushed  feed  back  to  one  of  the  bins  or  into 
the  bagger.  In  either  case  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  any 
lifting  for  the  sacks  are  carried  away  on  a  bag  truck. 
We  have  no  use  for  a  scoop  shovel  except  as  a  sort  of 
big  dustpan  to  use.  with  the  barn  broom. 

STUMP   PULLER 

Pulling  stumps  by  machinery  is  a  quick  operation 
compared  with  the  old  time  methods  of  grubbing,  chop- 
ping, prying  and  burning  that  our  forefathers  had  on 
their  hands.  Modern  stump  pulling  machines  are 
small  affairs  compared  with  the  heavy,  clumsy  things 
that  were  used  a  few  years  ago.  Some  of  the  new 
stump  pullers  are  guaranteed  to  clear  an  acre  a  day  of 


132  FARM  MECHANICS 

ordinary  stumpage.  This,  of  course,  must  be  a  rough 
estimate,  because  stumps,  like  other  things,  vary  in 
numbers,  size  and  condition  of  soundness.  Some  old 
stumps  may  be  removed  easily  while  others  hang  to 
the  ground  with  wonderful  tenacity. 

There  are  two  profits  to  follow  the  removal  of  stumps 
from  a  partially  cleared  field.  The  work  already  put 
on  the  land  has  in  every  case  cost  considerable  labor  to 
get  the  trees  and  brush  out  of  the  way.  The  land  is 
partially  unproductive  so  long  as  stumps  remain.  For 
this  reason,  it  is  impossible  to  figure  on  the  first  cost 
until  the  stumps  are  removed  to  complete  the  work  and 
to  put  the  land  in  condition  to  raise  machine  made 
crops.  When  the  stumps  are  removed,  the  value  of  the 
land  either  for  selling  or  for  farming  purposes  is  in- 
creased at  once.  Whether  sold  or  farmed,  the  increas- 
ing value  is  maintained  by  cropping  the  land  and  se- 
curing additional  revenue. 

There  are  different  ways  of  removing  stumps,  some 
of  which  are  easy  while  others  are  difficult  and  expen- 
sive. One  of  the  easiest  ways  is  to  bore  a  two-inch 
auger  hole  diagonally  down  into  the  stump ;  then  fill 
the  auger  hole  with  coal-oil  and  let  it  remain  for  some 
weeks  to  soak  into  the  wood.  Large  stumps  may  be 
bored  in  different  directions  so  the  coal-oil  will  find  its 
way  not  only  through  the  main  part  of  the  stumps 
but  down  into  the  roots.  This  treatment  requires  that 
the  stumps  should  be  somewhat  dry.  A  stump  that  is 
full  of  sap  has  no  room  for  coal-oil,  but  after  the  sap 
partially  dries  out,  then  coal  oil  will  fill  the  pores  of  the 
wood.  After  the  stump  is  thoroughly  saturated  with 
coal-oil,  it  will  burn  down  to  the  ground,  so  that  the 
different  large  roots  will  be  separated.  Sometimes  the 
roots  will  burn  below  plow  depth,  but  a  good  heavy 


DRIVEN  MACHINES  133 

pair  of  horses  with  a  grappling  hook  will  remove  the 
separated  roots. 

Dynamite  often  is  used  to  blow  stumps  to  pieces,  and 
the  work  is  not  considered  dangerous  since  the  inven- 
tion of  safety  devices.  In  some  sections  of  the  country 
where  firewood  is  valuable,  dynamite  has  the  advantage 


Initial  Position  Finfll  Position 


Figure  130. — The  Oldest  Farm  Hoist.  The  first  invention  for  ele- 
vating a  heavy  object  was  a  tripod  made  of  three  poles  tied  together 
at  the  top  with  thongs  of  bark  or  rawhide.  When  hunters  were 
lucky  enough  to  kill  a  bear,  the  tripod  elevator  was  erected  over  the 
carcass  with  the  lower  ends  of  the  poles  spread  well  apart  to  lower 
the  apex.  The  gambrel  was  inserted  under  the  hamstrings  and  at- 
tached to  the  top  of  the  tripod.  As  the  skinning  of  the  animal  pro- 
ceeded the  feet  of  the  tripod  were  moved  closer  together.  By  the 
time  the  head  was  cut  off  the  carcass  would  swing  clear. 

of  saving  the  wood.  An  expert  with  dynamite  will 
blow  a  stump  to  pieces  so  thoroughly  that  the  differ- 
ent parts  are  easily  worked  into  stove  lengths.  Pitch- 
pine  stumps  have  a  chemical  value  that  was  not  sus- 
pected until  some  fellows  got  rich  by  operating  a  retort. 

FARM  ELEVATING  MACHINERY 

Many  handy  and  a  few  heavy  elevators  are  being 
manufactured  to  replace  human  muscle.  The  simple 
tripod  beef  gin  was  familiar  to  the  early  settlers  and 


134  FARM  MECHANICS 

it  is  still  in  use.  When  a  heavy  animal  was  killed  for 
butchering,  the  small  ends  of  three  poles  were  tied  to- 
gether to  form  a  tripod  over  the  carcass.  The  feet  of 
the  tripod  were  placed  wide  apart  to  raise  the  apex 
only  a  few  feet  above  the  animal.  After  the  gambrel 
was  inserted  and  attached  the  feet  of  the  tripod  were 
moved  gradually  closer  together  as  the  skinning  pro- 
ceeded, thus  elevating  the  carcass  to  swing  clear  of  the 
ground. 

Grain  Elevators, — As  a  farm  labor-saver,  machinery 
to  elevate  corn  into  the  two-story  concrib  and  grain 
into  the  upper  bins  is  one  of  the  newer  and  more  im- 
portant farming  inventions.  With  a  modern  two-story 
corncrib  having  a  driveway  through  the  center,  a  con- 
crete floor  and  a  pit,  it  is  easy  to  dump  a  load  of  grain 
or  ear  corn  by  raising  the  front  end  of  the  wagon  box 
without  using  a  shovel  or  corn  fork.  After  the  load  is 
dumped  into  the  pit  a  boy  can  drive  a  horse  around  in  a 
cil'cle  while  the  buckets  carry  the  corn  or  small  grain 
and  deliver  it  by  spout  into  the  different  corncribs  or 
grain  bins.  There  are  several  makes  of  powerful  grain 
elevating  machines  that  will  do  the  work  easily  and 
quickly. 

The  first  requisite  is  a  building  with  storage  over- 
head, and  a  convenient  place  to  work  the  machinery. 
Some  of  the  elevating  machines  are  made  portable  and 
some  are  stationary.  Some  of  the  portable  machines 
will  work  both  ways.  Usually  stationary  elevators  are 
placed  in  vertical  position.  Some  portable  elevators 
may  be  operated  either  vertically  or  on  an  incline. 
Such  machines  are  adaptable  to  different  situations,  so 
the  corn  may  be  carried  up  into  the  top  story  of  a  farm 
grain  warehouse  or  the  apparatus  may  be  hauled  to  the 
railway  station  for  chuting  the  grain  or  ear  corn  into 


DRIVEN  MACHINES 


135 


a  car.  It  depends  upon  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  ma- 
chinery whether  the  strictly  stationary  or  portable  ele- 
vator is  required.  To  unload  usually  some  kind  of  pit 
or  incline  is  needed  with  any  kind  of  an  elevator,  so  the 
load  may  be  dumped  automatically  quickly  from  the 
wagon  box  to  be  distributed  by  carrying  buckets  at 
leisure. 


Figure  131. — Portable  Grain  Elevator  Filling  a  Corncrib.  The 
same  rig  is  taken  to  the  railway  to  load  box  cars.  The  wagon  is  un- 
loaded by  a  lifting  jaclc.  It  costs  from  Ic  to  l%c  per  bushel  to 
shovel  corn  by  hand,  but  the  greatest  saving  is  in  time. 


Some  elevators  are  arranged  to  take  grain  slowly 
from  under  the  tailboard  of  a  wagon  box.  The  tailrod 
is  removed  and  the  tailboard  raised  half  an  inch  or  an 
inch,  according  to  the  capacity  of  the  machinery.  The 
load  pays  out  through  the  opening  as  the  front  of  the 
wagon  is  gradually  raised,  so  the  last  grain  will  dis- 
charge into  the  pit  or  elevator  hopper  of  its  own  weight. 
Technical  building  knowledge  and  skill  is  required  to 
properly  connect  the  building  and  elevating  machinery 
so  that  the  two  will  work  smoothly  together.  There 
are  certain  features  about  the  building  that  must  con- 


136  FARM  MECHANICS 

form  to  the  requirements  and  peculiarities  of  the  ele- 
vating machinery.  The  grain  and  ear  corn  are  both 
carried  up  to  a  point  from  which  they  will  travel  by 
gravity  to  any  part  of  the  building.  The  building  re- 
quires great  structural  strength  in  some  places,  but  the 
material  may  be  very  light  in  others.  Hence,  the  neces- 
sity of  understanding  both  building  and  machinery  in 
order  to  meet  all  of  the  necessary  technical  require- 
ments. 


CHAPTER  V 

WOEKING  THE  SOIL 

IMPORTANCE  OF  PLOWING 

Plowing  is  a  mechanical  operation  that  deals  with 
physics,  chemistry,  bacteriology  and  entomology.  The 
soil  is  the  farmer 's  laboratory ;  his  soil  working  imple- 
ments are  his  mechanical  laboratory  appliances.     A 


Figure  132. — Heavy  Disk  Plow.  A  strong  four-horse  disk  imple- 
ment for  breaking  stumpy  ground  or  to  tear  tough  sod  into  bits  be- 
fore turning  under  with  a  moldboard. 

high  order  of  intelligence  is  required  to  merge  one  op- 
eration into  the  next  to  take  full  advantage  of  the 
assistance  offered  by  nature.  The  object  of  plowing 
and  cultivation  is  to  improve  the  mechanical  condition 
of  the  soil,  to  retain  moisture,  to  kill  insects  and  to  pro- 
vide a  suitable  home  for  the  different  kinds  of  soil  bac- 
teria. 

There  are  aerobic  and  anaerobic  bacteria,  also  nitro- 
137  , 


138  FARM  MECHANICS 

gen-gathering  bacteria  and  nitrifying  bacteria  which 
are  often  loosely  referred  to  as  azotabacter  species. 
Few  of  us  are  on  intimate  terms  with  any  of  them,  but 
some  of  us  have  had  formal  introductions  through  ex- 
periments and  observation. 

THE  MECHANICS  OF  PLOWING 

Walking  Flow. — The  draft  of  a  walking  plow  may 
be  increased  or  diminished  by  the  manner  of  hitch.    It 


Figure  133. — Sulky  Plow.     This  is  a  popular  type  of  riding  plow. 
It  is  fitted  with  a  rolling  coulter. 

is  necessary  to  find  the  direct  line  of  draft  between  the 
work  performed  and  the  propelling  force.  The  clevis 
in  the  two-horse  doubletree,  or  the  three-horse  evener 
and  the  adjusting  clevis  in  the  end  of  the  plow-beam 
with  the  connecting  link  will  permit  a  limited  adjust- 
ment. The  exact  direction  that  this  line  takes  will 
prove  out  in  operation.  The  walking  plow  should  not 
have  a  tendency  to  run  either  in  or  out,  neither  too 
deep  nor  too  shallow.  For  the  proper  adjustment  as  to 
width  and  depth  of  furrow,  the  plow  should  follow  the 
line  of  draft  in  strict  obedience  to  the  pull  so  that  it 


WORKING  THE  SOIL 


139 


will  keep  to  the  furrow  on  level  ground  a  distance  of 
several  feet  without  guidance  from  the  handles.  In 
making  the  adjustment  it  is  first  necessary  to  see  that . 


Figure  134. — Disk  Plow.  Less  power  is  required  to  plow  with  a 
disk,  but  it  is  a  sort  of  cut  and  cover  process.  The  disk  digs 
trenches  narrow  at  the  bottom.  There  are  ridges  between  the  little 
trenches  that  are  not  worked. 


Figure  135. — Three-Horse  and  Four-Horse  Eveners.  This  kind  of 
evener  hitches  the  horses  closer  to  the  load  than  some  others  and 
they  are  easier  to  handle  than  the  spread  out  kinds.  The  four- 
horse  rig  requires  the  best  horses  in  the  middle. 


the  plow  itself  is  in  good  working  order.  All  cutting 
edges  such  as  share,  coulter  or  jointer  must  be  reason- 
ably sharp  and  the  land  slip  in  condition  as  the  makers 
intended. 


140  FARM  MECHANICS 

All  plows  should  have  a  leather  pocket  on  the  side  of 
the  beam  to  carry  a  file.  A  12-inch  bastard  file  with  a 
good  handle  is  the  most  satisfactory  implement  for 
sharpening  the  cutting  edges  of  a  plow  in  the  fields.  A 
good  deal  depends  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  its 
condition  of  dryness,  but  generally  speaking,  it  p^ys  to 
do  a  little  filing  after  plowing  a  half  mile  of  furrow. 
If  the  horses  are  doing  their  duty,  a  little  rest  at  the 
end  of  the  half  mile  is  well  earned.  The  plowman  can 
put  in  the  time  to  advantage  with  the  file  and  the  next 
half  mile  will  go  along  merrily  in  consequence.  No 
farmer  would  continue  to  chop  wood  all  day  without 
whetting  his  axe,  but,  unfortunately,  plowmen  often 
work  from  morning  till  night  without  any  attempt  to 
keep  the  cutting  edges  of  their  plows  in  good  working 
order. 

Riding  Plow. — The  riding  plow  in  lifting  and  turn- 
ing the  furrow  slice  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  wheels. 
The  action  of  the  plow  is  that  of  a  wedge  with  the 
power  pushing  the  point,  the  share  and  the  moldboard 
between  the  furrow  slices  and  the  land  side  and  the 
furrow  bottom.  There  is  the  same  friction  between  the 
moldboard  and  the  furrow  slice  as  in  the  case  of  the 
walking  plow,  but  the  wheels  are  intended  to  mate- 
rially reduce  the  pressure  on  the  furrow  bottom  and 
against  the  land  side.  Plow  wheels  are  intended  to  re- 
lieve the  draft  in  this  respect  because  wheels  roll  much 
easier  than  the  plow  bottom  can  slide  with  the  weight 
of  the  work  on  top.  The  track  made  in  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow  with  the  walking  plow  shows  plainly  the 
heavy  pressure  of  the  furrow  slice  on  the  moldboard  by 
the  mark  of  the  slip.  To  appreciate  the  weight  the 
slip  carries,  an  interesting  experfment  may  be  per- 
formed by  loading  the  walking  plow  with  weights  suf- 


WORKING  THE  SOIL 


141 


ficient  to  make  the  same  kind  of  a  mark  when  the  plow 
is  not  turning  a  furrow. 

One  advantage  in  riding  plows  in  addition  to  the 
relief  of  such  a  load  is  less  packing  of  the  furrow  bot- 
tom. On  certain  soils  when  the  moisture  is  just  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  subsoil  sticky,  a  certain  portion  of  the 
furrow  bottom  is  cemented  by  plow  pressure  so  that  it 


Figure  136. — Three-Section,  Spike-Tooth  Harrow.  The  harrow  is 
made  straight,  but  the  hitch  is  placed  over  to  one  side  to  give  each 
tooth  a  separate  line  of  travel. 


Figure  137. — Harrow  Sled  Long  Enough  to  Hold  a  Four-Section 
Harrow. 

becomes  impervious  to  the  passage  of  moisture  either 
up  or  down.  The  track  of  a  plow  wheel  is  less  in- 
jurious. 

Plow  wheels  should  stand  at  the  proper  angle  to  the 
pressure  with  especial  reference  to  the  work  performed. 
Wheels  should  be  adjusted  with  an  eye  single  to  the 
conditions  existing  in  the  furrow.  Some  wheel  plows 
apparently  are  especially  built  to  run  light  like  a 
wagon  above  ground  regardless  of  the  underground 
work  required  of  them. 


142 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Axles  should  hang  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  lift 
so  accurately  as  to  cause  the  wheels  to  wear  but  lightly 
on  the  ends  of  the  hubs.  Mistakes  in  adjustment  show 
in  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  supply  of  washers  on  hand 
to  replace  the  ones  that  quickly  wear  thin. 


Figure  138. — Corn  Cultivator.  A  one-row,  riding-disk  cultivator. 
The  ridges  are  smoothed  by  the  spring*  scrapers  to  leave  an  even 
surface  to  prevent  evaporation. 


In  this  respect  a  good  deal  depends  on  the  sand-bands 
at  the  ends  of  the  hubs.  Plow  wheels  are  constantly 
lifting  gritty  earth  and  dropping  it  on  the  hubs.  There 
is  only  one  successful  way  to  keep  sand  out  of  the  jour- 
nals and  that  is  by  having  the  hubs,  or  hub  ferrules, 
extend  well  beyond  the  bearings.  Plow  wheel  hub  ex- 
tensions should  reach  two  inches  beyond  the  journal 
both  at  the  large  end  of  the  hub  and  at  the  nut  or  linch- 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  143 

pin  end.  Some  plow  wheels  cut  so  badly  that  farmers 
consider  oil  a  damage  and  they  are  permitted  to  run 
dry.  This  is  not  only  very  wasteful  of  expensive  iron 
but  the  wheels  soon  wabble  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
no  longer  guide  the  plow,  in  which  case  the  draft  may 
be  increased  enormously. 


Figure  139. — A  Combination  Riding  and  Walking  Cultivator, 
showing  fenders  attached  to  protect  young  plants  the  first  time 
through.  The  two  bull  tongues  shown  are  for  use  in  heavy  soils 
or  when  deeper  digging  is  necessary. 

Scotch  Plows. — ^When  the  long,  narrow  Scotch  sod 
plows  are  exhibited  at  American  agricultural  fairs  they 
attract  a  good  deal  of  attention  and  no  small  amount  of 
ridicule  from  American  farmers  because  of  the  six  or 
seven  inch  furrows  they  are  intended  to  turn.  In  this 
country  we  are  in  too  much  of  a  hurry  to  spend  all  day 
plowing  three-fourths  of  an  acre  of  ground.  Intensive 
farming  is  not  so  much  of  an  object  with  us  as  the 
quantity  of  land  put  under  cultivation. 


144  FARM  MECHANICS 

Those  old-fashioned  Scotch  plows  turn  a  furrow 
about  two-thirds  of  the  way  over,  laying  the  sod  surface 
at  an  angle  of  about  45°  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 
The  sharp  comb  cut  by  the  coulter  and  share  stands  up- 
right so  that  a  sod  field  when  plowed  is  marked  in  sharp 
ridges  six  or  seven  inches  apart,  according  to  the  width 
of  the  furrow.  Edges  of  sod  show  in  the  bottoms  of 
the  corrugations  between  these  little  furrow  ridges. 

When  the  rains  come  the  water  is  held  in  these 
grooves  and  it  finds  its  way  down  the  whole  depth  of 
the  furrow  slice  carrying  air  with  it  and  moistening  ev- 
ery particle  of  trash  clear  to  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 
Sucli  conditions  are  ideal  for  the  work  of  the  different 
forms  of  bacteria  to  break  down  plant  fibre  contained 
in  the  roots  and  trash  and  work  it  into  humus,  which 
is  in  turn  manipulated  by  other  forms  of  soil  bacteria 
to  produce  soil  water  which  is  the  only  food  of  grow- 
ing plants. 

Jointer  Plows, — ^American  plow  makers  also  have 
recognized  the  necessity  of  mixing  humus  with  soil  in 
the  act  of  plowing.  To  facilitate  the  process  and  at  the 
same  time  turn  a  wide  furrow,  the  jointer  does  fairly 
good  work  when  soil  conditions  are  suitable.  The 
jointer  is  a  little  plow  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
coulter  and  is  attached  to  the  plow-beam  in  the  same 
manner.  The  jointer  turns  a  little  furrow  one  inch 
or  two  inches  deep  and  the  large  plow  following  after 
turns  a  twelve-inch  or  fourteen-inch  furrow  slice  flat 
over,  throwing  the  little  jointer  furrow  in  the  middle 
of  the  furrow  bottom  in  such  a  way  that  the  big  furrow 
breaks  over  the  smaller  furrow. 

If  the  work  is  well  done,  cracks  as  wide  as  a  man's 
hand  and  from  three  to  five  inches  deep  are  left  all  over 
the  field.    These  cracks  lead  air  and  moisture  to  rot  the 


WORKING  THE   SOIL  143 

trash  below.  This  is  a  much  quicker  way  of  doing  a 
fairly  good  job  of  plowing.  Such  plows  loosen  the  soil 
and  furnish  the  conditions  required  by  nature;  and 
they  may  be  operated  with  much  less  skill  than  the  old- 
fashioned  narrow-furrowed  Scotch  plows. 

Good  plowing  requires  first  that  the  soil  be  in  proper 
condition  to  plow,  neither  too  dry  nor  too  wet,  but  no 
man  can  do  good  plowing  without  the  proper  kind  of 
plow  to  fit  the  soil  he  is  working  with. 

PLOWING  BY  TRACTOR 

Under  present  conditions  farm  tractors  are  not  in- 
tended to  replace  horse  power  entirely  but  to  precede 
horses  to  smooth  the  rough  places  that  horses  may  fol- 
low with  the  lighter  machines  to  add  the  finishing 
touches.  Light  tractors  are  being  made,  and  they  are 
growing  in  popularity,  but  the  real  business  of  the 
farm  tractor  is  to  do  the  heavy  lugging — the  work  that 
kills  horses  and  delays  seeding  until  the  growing  sea- 
son has  passed.  The  actual  power  best  suited  to  the 
individual  farm  can  only  be  determined  by  the  nature 
of  the  land  and  the  kind  of  farming. 

In  the  Middle  West  where  diversified  farming  is 
practiced,  the  8-16  and  the  10-20  sizes  seem  to  be  the 
most  satisfactory,  and  this  is  without  regard  to  the  size 
of  the  farm.  The  preponderance  of  heavy  work  will 
naturally  dictate  the  buying  of  a  tractor  heavier  than 
a  10-20.  The  amount  of  stationary  work  is  a  factor. 
In  certain  communities  heavy  farm  tractors  are  made 
to  earn  dividends  by  running  threshing  machines  after 
harvest,  silo  fillers  in  the  fall  and  limestone  crushers 
in  the  winter. 

Here  is  a  classified  list  of  jobs  the  medium  size  farm 
tractor  is  good  for : 


146  FARM  MECHANICS 

Clearing  the  Land— pulling  up  bushes  by  the  roots, 
tearing  out  hedges,  pulling  stumps,  grubbing,  pulling 
stones. 

Preparing  Seed  Bed  and  Seeding — plowing,  disking, 
crushing  clods,  pulling  a  land  plane,  rolling,  packing, 
drilling,  harrowing. 

Harvesting — mowing,  pulling  grain  binders,  pulling 
potato  digger. 

Belt  Work — hay  baling,  corn  shelling,  heavy  pump- 
ing for  irrigation,  grinding  feed,  threshing,  clover 
hulling,  husking  and  shredding,  silo  filling,  stone 
crushing. 

Road  Work — grading,  dragging,  leveling,  ditching, 
hauling  crops. 

Miscellaneous — running  portable  sawmill,  stretch- 
ing wire  fencing,  ditch  digging,  manure  spreading. 

Generally  speaking,  however,  the  most  important 
farm  tractor  work  is  preparing  the  seed-bed  thoroughly 
and  quickly  while  the  soil  and  weather  conditions  are 
the  best.  And  the  tractor's  ability  to  work  all  day  and 
all  night  at  such  times  is  one  of  its  best  qualifications. 

To  plow  one  square  mile,  or  640  acres,  with  a  walk- 
ing plow  turning  a  twelve-inch  furrow,  a  man  and 
team  must  walk  5,280  miles.  The  gang-plow  has  al- 
ways been  considered  a  horse  killer,  and,  when  farmers 
discovered  that  they  could  use  oil  power  to  save  their 
horses,  many  were  quick  to  make  the  change. 

It  requires  approximately  10  horsepower  hours  to 
turn  an  acre  of  land  with  horses.  At  a  speed  of  two 
miles,  a  team  with  one  plow  in  ten  hours  will  turn  two 
acres.  To  deliver  the  two  horsepower  required  to  do 
this  work,  they  must  travel  176  feet  per  minute  and 
exert  a  continuous  pull  of  375  pounds  or  187.5  pounds 
per  horse. 


WORKING  THE   SOIL  147 

One  horsepower  equals  a  pull  of  33,000  pounds, 
moved  one  foot  per  minute.  Two-mile  speed  equals 
two  times  5,280  or  10,560  feet  per  hour,  or  176  feet  per 
minute.  Sixty-six  thousand  divided  by  176  equals  375 
foot  pounds  pull  per  minute.  One  horsepower  is  ab- 
sorbed in  88  feet  of  furrow. 

Horse  labor  costs,  according  to  Government  figures, 
121/^  cents  per  hour  per  horse.  On  this  basis  ten  hours' 
work  will  be  $1.25,  which  is  the  average  daily  cost  of 
each  horse.  An  average  Illinois  diversified  farm  of  160 
acres  would  be  approximately  as  follows :  Fifty  acres 
of  corn,  30  acres  of  oats  and  wheat,  20  acres  of  hay,  60 
acres  of  rough  land,  pasture,  orchard,  building  and 
feed  lots. 

This  average  farm  supports  six  work  horses  or  mules 
and  one  colt.  According  to  figures  taken  from  farm 
work  reports  submitted  by  many  different  corn  belt 
farmers,  the  amount  of  horse-work  necessary  to  do  this 
cropping  would  figure  out  as  follows: 

Fifty  acres  of  corn  land  for  plowing,  disking,  har- 
rowing, planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting  would 
amount  to  a  total  of  1,450  horsepower  hours.  Thirty 
acres  of  wheat  would  require  a  total  of  330  horsepower 
hours.  Twenty  acres  of  hay  would  require  110  horse- 
power hours.  In  round  figures,  1,900  horsepower  hours 
at  121/^  cents  would  amount  to  $237.50. 

Elaborate  figures  have  been  worked  out  theoretically 
to  show  that  this  work  can  be  done  by  an  8-16  farm 
tractor  in  27%  days  at  a  cost  for  kerosene  fuel  and 
lubricating  oil  of  $1.89  per  day.  Adding  interest,  re- 
pairs and  depreciation,  brings  this  figure  up  to  about 
$4.00  per  day,  or  a  total  of  $111.00  for  the  job.  No  ac- 
count is  kept  of  man  power  in  caring  for  either  the 
horses  or  the  tractor.    The  actual  man  labor  on  the  job, 


148  FARM  MECHANICS 

however,  figures  12%  days  less  for  the  tractor  than  for 
horses.  We  should  remember  that  actual  farm  figures 
are  used  for  the  cost  of  horse  work.  Such  figures  are 
not  available  for  tractor  work. 

The  cost  of  plowing  with  a  traction  engine  depends 
upon  so  many  factors  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  any 
definite  statement.  It  depends  upon  the  condition  of 
the  ground,  size  of  the  tractor,  the  number  of  plows 
pulled,  and  the  amount  of  fuel  used.  An  8-16  horse- 
power tractor,  for  instance,  burning  from  15  to  20  gal- 
lons of  low  grade  kerosene  per  ten  hour  day  and  using 
one  gallon  of  lubricating  oil,  costs  about  $1.90  per  ten 
hours  work.  Pulling  two  14-inch  plows  and  traveling 
20  miles  per  day,  the  tractor  will  plow  5.6  acres  at  a 
fuel  and  an  oil  cost  of  about.  30  cents  per  acre.  Pulling 
three  14-inch  plows,  it  will  turn  8.4  acres  at  a  cost  for 
fuel  and  oil  of  about  20  cents  an  acre. 

The  kind  and  condition  of  soil  is  an  important  factor 
in  determining  the  tractor  cost  of  plowing.  Compari- 
son between  the  average  horse  cost  and  the  average 
tractor  cost  suggests  very  interesting  possibilities  in 
favor  of  tractor  plowing  under  good  management. 

Aside  from  the  actual  cost  in  dollars  we  should  also 
remember  that  no  horse  gang  can  possibly  do  the  qual- 
ity of  work  that  can  be  accomplished  by  an  engine 
gang.  Anxiety  to  spare  the  team  has  cut  a  big  slice  off 
the  profits  of  many  a  farmer.  He  has  often  plowed  late 
on  account  of  hard  ground,  and  he  has  many  times 
allowed  a  field  to  remain  unplowed  on  account  of  worn- 
out  teams.  Under  normal  conditions,  late  plowing 
never  produces  as  good  results  as  early  plowing.  Many 
a  farmer  has  fed  and  harnessed  by  the  light  of  the  lan- 
tern, gone  to  the  field  and  worked  his  team  hard  to  take 
advantage  of  the  cool  of  the  morning.    With  the  ap- 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  149 

preach  of  the  hot  hours  of  midday,  the  vicious  flies 
sapping  the  vitality  from  his  faithful  team,  he  has 
eased  up  on  the  work  or  quit  the  job. 

In  using  the  tractor  for  plowing,  there  are  none  of 
these  distressing  conditions  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, nothing  to  think  of  but  the  quality  of  work  done. 
It  is  possible  to  plow  deep  without  thought  of  the  added 
burden.  Deep  plowing  may  or  may  not  be  advisable. 
But  where  the  soil  will  stand  it,  deep  plowing  at 
the  proper  time  of  year,  and  when  done  with  judg- 
ment, holds  moisture  better  and  provides  more  plant 
food. 

The  pull  power  required  to  plow  different  soils  varies 
from  about  three  pounds  per  square  inch  of  furrow  for 
light  sand  up  to  twenty  pounds  per  square  inch  of 
furrow  for  gumbo.  The  draft  of  a  plow  is  generally 
figured  from  clover  sod,  which  averages  about  seven 
pounds  per  square  inch.  Suppose  a  plow  rig  has  two 
14-inch  bottoms,  and  the  depth  to  be  plowed  is  six 
inches.  A  cross  section  of  each  plow  is  therefore  14  by 
6  inches,  or  84  square  inches.  Twice  this  for  two  bot- 
toms is  168  square  inches.  Since,  in  sandy  soil,  the 
pressure  per  square  inch  is  three  pounds,  therefore  168 
times  3  pounds  equals  504  pounds,  the  draft  in  sandy 
soil.  168  times  7  pounds  equals  1,176  pounds,  the  draft 
in  clover  sod.  168  times  8  pounds  equals  1,344  pounds, 
the  draft  in  clay  sod. 

The  success  of  crop  growing  depends  upon  the  way 
the  seed-bed  is  prepared.  The  final  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed  can  never  be  thoroughly  well  done  unless  the 
ground  is  properly  plowed  to  begin  with.  It  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  root  the  ground  over  or  to  crowd  it  to  one  side 
but  the  plow  must  really  turn  the  furrow  slice  in  a  uni- 
form, systematic  manner  and  lay  it  bottom  side  upper- 


150  FARM  MECHANICS 

most  to  receive  the  beneficial  action  of  the  air,  rain  and 
sunshine. 

The  moldboard  of  a  plow  must  be  smooth  in  order  to 
properly  shed  the  earth  freely  to  make  an  easy  turn- 
over. The  shape  of  the  shear  and  the  forward  part  of 
the  moldboard  is  primarily  that  of  a  wedge,  but  the  roll 
or  upper  curve  of  the  moldboard  changes  according  to 
soil  texture  and  the  width  and  depth  of  furrow  to  be 
turned.  Moldboards  also  differ  in  size  and  shape,  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  of  furrow  to  be  turned.  Sometimes 
in  certain  soils  a  narrow  solid  furrow  with,  a  comb 
on  the  upper  edge  is  preferable.  In  other  soils  a  . 
cracked  or  broken  furrow  slice  works  the  best.  When 
working  our  lighter  soils  a  wide  furrow  turned  flat  over 
on  top  of  a  jointer  furrow  breaks  the  ground  into  frag- 
ments with  wide  cracks  or  openings  reaching  several 
inches  down.  Between  these  extremes  there  are  many 
modifications  made  for  the  particular  type  or  texture 
of  the  soil  to  be  plowed.  We  can  observe  the  effect  that  a 
rough,  or  badly  scratched,  or  poorly  shaped  moldboard 
has  on  any  kind  of  soil,  especially  when  passing  from 
gravelly  soils  to  clay.  In  soil  that  contains  the  right 
amount  of  moisture,  when  a  plow  scours  all  the  time, 
the  top  of  the  furrow  slice  always  has  a  glazed  or  shiny 
appearance.  This  shows  that  the  soil  is  slipping  off 
the  moldboard  easily.  In  places  where  the  plow  does 
not  scour  the  ground  is  pushed  to  one  side  and  packed 
or  puddled  on  the  underside  instead  of  being  lifted 
and  turned  as  it  should  be.  A  field  plowed  with  a  de- 
fective moldboard  will  be  full  of  these  places.  Such 
ground  cannot  have  the  life  to  bring  about  a  satis- 
factory bacteria  condition  necessary  to  promote  the 
rapid  plant  growth  that  proper  plowing  gives  it. 

Cultivated  sandy  soils  are  becoming  more  acid  year 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  151 

after  year.  We  are  using  lime  to  correct  the  acidity, 
but  the  use  of  lime  requires  better  plowing  and  better 
after  cultivation  to  thoroughly  mix  the  trash  with  the 
earth  to  make  soil  conditions  favorable  to  the  different 
kinds  of  soil  bacteria.  Unless  we  pay  special  attention 
to  the  humus  content  of  the  soil  we  are  likely  to  use 
lime  to  dissolve  out  plant  foods  that  are  not  needed  by 
the  present  crop,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  utilized. 
This  is  what  the  old  adage  means  which  reads :  * '  Lime 
enricheth  the  father  but  impoverisheth  the  son. ' '  When 
that  was  written  the  world  had  no  proper  tillage  tools 
and  the  importance  of  humus  was  not  even  dreamed  of. 

Not  so  many  years  ago  farm  plows  were  made  of  cast 
iron.  Then  came  the  steel  moldboard,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  acme  of  perfection  in  plow  making. 
Steel  would  scour  and  turn  the  furrow  in  fluffy  soils 
where  cast  iron  would  just  ropt  along  without  turning 
the  ground  at  all.  Later  the  art  of  molding  steel  was 
studied  and  perfected  until  many  grades  and  degrees 
of  hardness  were  produced  and  the  shape  of  the  mold- 
board  passed  through  a  thousand  changes.  The  idea 
all  the  time  was  to  make  plows  that  would  not  only 
scour  but  polish  in  all  kinds  of  soil.  At  the  same  time 
they  must  turn  under  all  of  the  vegetable  growth  to 
make  humus,  to  kill  weeds  and  to  destroy  troublesome 
insects.  Besides  these  requirements  the  soil  must  be 
pulverized  and  laid  loose  to  admit  both  air  and  mois- 
ture. These  experiments  gradually  led  up  to  our  pres- 
ent high  grade  plows  of  hardened  steel  and  what  is 
known  as  chilled  steel. 

Besides  the  hardness  there  are  different  shapes  de- 
signed for  different  soils  so  that  a  plow  to  work  well  on 
one  farm  may  need  to  be  quite  different  from  a  plow  to 
do  the  best  work  in  another  neighborhood.    The  furrow 


152  FARM  MECHANICS 

slice  sliding  over  a  perfect  moldboard  leaves  the  sur- 
face of  the  upturned  ground  as  even  as  the  bottom  of 
the  furrow.  By  using  a  modern  plow  carefully  selected 
to  fit  the  soil,  gravel,  sandy,  stony  or  muck  soils,  or  silt 
loams  that  contain  silica,  lime,  iron  and  aluminum  ox- 
ide can  be  worked  with  the  right  plow  to  do  the  best 
work  possible  if  we  use  the  necessary  care  and  judg- 
ment in  making  the  selection. 

One  object  of  good  plowing  is  to  retain  moisture 
in  the  soil  until  the  growing  crop  can  make  good  use 
of  it. 

The  ease  with  which  soils  absorb,  retain  or  lose  mois- 
ture, depends  mostly  on  their  texture,  humus  content, 
physical  condition,  and  surface  slope  or  artificial  drain- 
age. It  is  to  the  extent  that  cultivation  can  modify 
these  factors  that  more  soil  water  can  be  made  available 
to  the  growing  crop.  There  are  loose,  open  soils 
through  which  water  percolates  as  through  a  sieve,  and 
there  are  tight,  gumbo  soils  which  swell  when  the  sur- 
face is  moistened  and  become  practically  waterproof. 
Sandy  soils  take  in  water  more  readily  than  heavier 
soils,  hence  less  precaution  is  necessary  to  prevent 
run-off. 

Among  the  thousands  of  plows  of  many  different 
makes  there  are  plenty  of  good  ones.  The  first  con- 
sideration in  making  a  selection  is  a  reliable  home 
dealer  who  has  a  good  business  reputation  and  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  local  soil  from  a  mechanical  stand- 
point. The  next  consideration  is  the  service  the  plow . 
will  give  in  proportion  to  the  price. 

DISK  HARROW 

For  preparing  land  to  receive  the  seed  no  other  im- 
plement will  equal  a  double  disk.    These  implements 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  153 

are  made  in  various  sizes  and  weights  of  frame.  For 
heavy  land,  where  it  is  necessary  to  weight  the  disk 
down,  an  extra  heavy  frame  is  necessary.  It  would 
probably  be  advisable  to  get  the  extra  strong  frame  for 
any  kind  of  land,  because  even  in  light  sand  there  are 
times  when  a  disk  may  be  used  to  advantage  to  kill 
quackgrass  or  to  chew  up  sod  before  plowing.  In  such 
cases  it  is  customary  to  load  on  a  couple  of  sacks  of 
sand  in  addition  to  the  weight  of  the  driver.  When  a 
disk  is  carrying  300  or  400  pounds  besides  its  own 
weight  the  racking  strains  which  pull  from  different 
directions  have  a  tendency  to  warp  or  twist  a  light 
frame  out  of  shape.  To  keep  a  disk  cultivator  in  good 
working  order  it  is  necessary  to  go  over  it  thoroughly 
before  doing  heavy  work.  Bolts  must  be  kept  tight,  all 
braces  examined  occasionally,  and  the  heavy  nuts  at 
the  ends  of  the  disk  shafts  watched.  They  sometimes 
loosen  and  give  trouble.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  run- 
ning a  disk  harrow  or  cultivator  is  to  keep  the  boxings 
in  good  trim.  Wooden  boxes  are  provided  with  the 
implement.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  insist  on  having  a  full 
set  of  eight  extra  boxes.  These  wooden  boxes  may  be 
made  on  the  farm,  but  it  sometimes  is  difficult  to  get 
the  right  kind  of  wood.  They  should  be  made  of  hard 
maple,  bored  according  to  size  of  shaft,  and  boiled  in 
a  good  quality  of  linseed  oil.  Iron  boxings  have  never 
been  satisfactory  on  a  disk  implement.  Wooden  ones 
make  enough  trouble,  but  wood  has  proved  better  than 
iron.  On  most  disk  cultivators  there  are  oil  channels 
leading  to  the  boxings.  These  channels  are  large 
enough  to  carry  heavy  oil.  The  lighter  grades  of  cylin- 
der oil  work  the  best.  It  is  difficult  to  cork  these  oil 
channels  tight  enough  i±o  keep  the  sand  out.  Oil  and 
sand  do  not  work  well  together  in  a  bearing.     The 


154  FARM  MECHANICS 

manufacturers  of  these  implements  could  improve  the 
oiling  device  by  shortening  the  channel  and  building  a 
better  housing  for  the  oil  entrance.  It  is  quite  a  job  to 
take  a  disk  apart  to  put  in  new  boxings,  but,  like  all 
other  repair  work,  the  disk  should  be  taken  into  the 
shop,  thoroughly  cleaned,  repaired,  painted  and  oiled 
in  the  winter  time. 

Some  double  disk  cultivators  have  tongues  and  some 
are  made  without.  Whether  the  farmer  wants  a  tongue 
or  not  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  land.  The  only  ad- 
vantage is  that  a  tongue  will  hold  the  disk  from  crowd- 
ing onto  the  horses  when  it  is  running  light  along  the 
farm  lanes  or  the  sides  of  the  fields  with  the  disks  set 
straight.  Horses  have  been  ruined  by  having  the 
sharp  disks  run  against  them  when  going  down  hill. 
Such  accidents  always  are  avoidable  if  a  man  realizes 
the  danger.  Unfortunately,  farm  implements  are  often 
used  by  men  who  do  very  little  thinking.  A  spring 
disk  scraper  got  twisted  on  a  root  and  was  thrown 
over  the  top  of  one  of  the  disks  so  it  scraped  against  the 
back  of  the  disk  and  continued  to  make  a  harsh,  scrap- 
ing noise  until  the  proprietor  went  to  see  wliat  was 
wrong.  The  man  driving  the  disk  said  he  thought 
something  must  be  the  matter  with  the  cultivator,  but 
he  couldn  't  tell  for  the  life  of  him  what  it  was.  When 
farmers  are  up  against  such  difficulties  it  is  safer  to 
buy  a  disk  with  a  tongue. 

Harrow  Cart. — A  small  two-wheel  cart  with  a  spring 
seat  overshadowed  with  a  big  umbrella  is  sometimes 
called  a  '  *  dude  sulky. ' '  Many  sensitive  farmers  trudge 
along  in  the  soft  ground  and  dust  behind  their  harrows 
afraid  of  such  old  fogy  ridicule.  The  hardest  and  most 
tiresome  and  disagreeable  job  at  seeding  time  is  fol- 
lowing a  harrow  on  foot.    Eiding  a  harrow  cart  in  the 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  155 

field  is  conserving  energy  that  may  be  applied  to  bet- 
ter purposes  after  the  day's  work  in  the  field  is  fin- 
ished. 

KNIFE-EDGE  PULVERIZERS 

A  knife-edge  weeder  makes  the  best  dust  mulch  pul- 
verizer for  orchard  work  or  when  preparing  a  seed- 
bed for  grain.  These  implements  are  sold  under  dif- 
ferent names.  It  requires  a  stretch  of  imagination  to 
attach  the  word  *^ harrow''  to  these  knife-edge  weed- 
ers.  There  is  a  central  bar  which  is  usually  a  hardwood 
plank.  The  knives  are  bolted  to  the  underside  of  the 
plank  and  sloped  backward  and'  outward  from  the 
center  to  the  right  and  left,  so  that  the  knife-edges 
stand  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  to  the  line  of  draught. 
This  angle  is  just  about  sufficient  to  let  tough  weeds 
slip  off  the  edges  instead  of  dragging  along.  If  the 
knives  are  sharp,  they  will  cut  tender  weeds,  but  the 
tough  ones  must  be  disposed  of  to  prevent  choking. 
The  proper  use  of  the  knife-edge  weeder  prevents 
weeds  from  growing,  but  in  farm  practice,  sometimes 
rainy  weather  prevents  the  use  of  such  a  tool  until  the 
weeds  are  well  established.  As  a  moisture  retainer, 
these  knife-edge  weeders  are  superior  to  almost  any 
other  implement.  They  are  made  in  widths  of  from 
eight  to  twenty  feet.  The  wide  ones  are  jointed  in  the 
middle  to  fit  uneven  ground. 

CLOD  CRUSHER 

The  farm  land  drag,  float,  or  clod  crusher  is  useful 
under  certain  conditions  on  low  spots  that  do  not  drain 
properly.  Such  land  must  be  plowed  when  the  main 
portion  of  the  field  is  in  proper  condition,  and  the  re- 
sult often  is  that  the  low  spots  are  so  wet  that  the 


156  FARM  MECHANICS 

ground  packs  into  lumps  that  an  ordinary  harrow  will 
not  break  to  pieces.  Such  lumps  roll  out  between  the 
harrow  teeth  and  remain  on  top  of  the  ground  to  inter- 
fere with  cultivation.  The  clod  crusher  then  rides 
over  the  lumps  and  grinds  them  into  powder.  Unfor- 
tunately, clod  crushers  often  are  depended  on  to  rem- 
edy faulty  work  on  ordinary  land  that  should  receive 
better  treatment.  Many  times  the  clod  crusher  is  a 
poor  remedy  for  poor  tillage  on  naturally  good  land 
that  lacks  humus. 


Figure  140. — Land  Float.  Clod  crushers  and  land  floats  belong 
to  the  same  tribe.  Theoretically  they  are  all  outlaws,  but  some 
practical  farmers  harbor  one  or  more  of  them.  Wet  land,  contain- 
ing considerable  clay,  sometimes  forms  into  lumps  which  should  be 
crushed. 

As  ordinarily  made,  the  land  float  or  clod  crusher 
consists  of  from  ^Ye  to  eight  planks,  two  inches  thick 
and  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide,  spiked  together  in  saw- 
tooth position,  the  edges  of  the  planks  being  lapped 
over  each  other  like  clapboards  in  house  siding.  The 
planks  are  held  in  place  with  spikes  driven  through 
into  the  crosspieces. 

FARM  ROLLER 

Farm  rollers  are  used  to  firm  the  soil.  Sometimes 
a  seed-bed  is  worked  up  so  thoroughly  that  the  ground 
is  made  too  loose  so  the  soil  is  too  open  and  porous. 
Seeds  to  germinate  require  that  the  soil  grains  shall  fit 
up  closely  against  them.  Good  soil  is  impregnated 
with  soil  moisture,  or  film  moisture  as  it  is  often  called, 
because  the  moisture  forms  in  a  film  around  each  little 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  157 

soil  grain.  In  properly  prepared  soil  this  film  moisture 
comes  in  contact  with  the  freshly  sown  seed.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  right  the  seed  swells  and  germination 
starts.     The  swelling  of  the  seed  brings  it  in  contact 


Figure  141. — Iron  Land  Roller  Made  of  Boiler  Plate. 


Figure  142. — Wooden  Land  Roller. 

with  more  film  moisture  attached  to  other  grains  of  soil 
so  the  rootlet  grows  and  pushes  out  into  the  soil  in 
search  of  moisture  on  its  own  account.  A  roller  is  val- 
uable to  press  the  particles  of  soil  together  to  bring  the 
freshly  sown  seeds  in  direct  contact  with  as  many  par- 
ticles of  soil  as  possible.  Rolling  land  is  a  peculiar 
operation,  the  value  of  which  is  not  always  understood. 


158  FARM  MECHANICS 

The  original  idea  was  to  benefit  the  soil  by  breaking  the 
lumps.  It  may  be  of  some  benefit  on  certain  soils  for 
this  purpose,  but  the  land  should  always  be  harrowed 
after  rolling  to  form  a  dust  mulch  to  prevent  the  evap- 
oration of  moisture.  Land  that  has  been  rolled  and  left 
overnight  shows  damp  the  next  morning,  which  is  suf- 
ficient proof  that  moisture  is  coming  to  the  surface  and 
is  being  dissipated  into  the  atmosphere.  In  the  so- 
called  humid  sections  of  the  country  the  great  problem 
is  to  retain  moisture.  Any  farm  implement  that  has  a 
tendency  to  dissipate  soil  moisture  is  a  damage  to  the 
farmer.  Probably  nine  times  out  of  ten  a  farm  roller 
is  a  damage  to  the  crop  it  is  intended  to  benefit  because 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used.  It  is  the  abuse,  not 
the  proper  use  of  a  roller,  that  injures  the  crop. 

CORN-PLANTER 

Corn-planters  are  designed  to  plant  two  rows  at 
once.  The  width  of  rows  may  be  adjusted  from  about 
32  to  44  inches  apart.  When  seed-corn  is  carefully 
graded  to  size  the  dropping  mechanism  will  feed  out 
the  grains  of  corn  regularly  with  very  few  skips.  This 
is  one  reason  why  most  farmers  plant  corn  in  drills. 
There  are  other  cultural  reasons  which  do  not  prop- 
erly belong  to  this  mechanical  article.  Hill  dropping 
is  considerably  more  complicated  and  difficult.  After 
the  feeding  mechanism  has  been  adjusted  to  the  size 
of  seed  kernels  to  be  planted  so  it  will  drop  four  ker- 
nels in  a  hill  then  the  trip  chain  is  tried  out  to  see  if 
it  is  right  at  every  joint.  Dropping  in  hills  is  a  very 
careful  mechanical  proposition.  An  inch  or  two  out 
of  line  either  way  means  a  loss  of  corn  in  cultivating. 

In  setting  the  stakes  to  go  and  come  by,  a  careful 
measurement  of  the  field  is  necessary  in  order  to  get 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  15d 

the  stake  lines  on  both  sides  of  the  field  parallel.  If 
the  ring  stakes  are  driven  accurately  on  the  line,  then 
the  first  hill  of  corn  must  come  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  line  in  each  row.  Likewise  in  starting  back 
from  the  far  side  of  the  field  the  first  hill  should  meas- 
ure exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  stake  line  as  the 
first  hills  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  field.  This  is 
easily  managed  by  counting  the  number  of  trips  be- 
tween the  stake  line  and  the  first  row  of  corn  hills.  If 
the  two  lines  of  stakes  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  field 
are  exactly  parallel  it  is  not  necessary  to  move  either 
line  in  order  to  get  the  proper  distance  to  start  drop- 
ping, but  it  must  be  adjusted  by  measurement,  other- 
wise the  corn  hills  will  be  dodged.  If  the  corn  hills  are 
to  space  three  feet  apart  then  the  first  row  of  hills 
should  come  nine  or  twelve  feet  from  the  stake  line. 
Stakes  may  be  measured  and  set  a  certain  number  of 
inches  from  the  line  to  make  the  distance  come  right. 
This  careful  adjustment  brings  the  hills  in  line  in  the 
rows. 

When  the  field  is  level  or  gently  sloping  +here  is  no 
difficulty  in  making  straight  rows  so  far  as  check  row- 
ing is  concerned.  When  the  field  is  hilly  another  prob- 
lem crops  up.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  run  corn  rows 
along  the  side  of  a  hill  and  keep  them  straight.  The 
planter  has  a  tendency  to  slide  downhill.  Also  the  dis- 
tance across  a  field  is  greater  where  the  rows  pass  over 
a  hill.  To  keep  the  rows  straight  under  such  conditions 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  stretch  over  the  hill 
as  well  as  for  the  side  thrust  of  the  planter.  Where  a 
chain  marker  is  used  it  hangs  downhill  and  a  further 
allowance  must  be  made  for  that.  A  good  driver  will 
skip  an  inch  or  so  above  the  mark  so  that  the  rows  will 
be  planted  fairly  straight.  This  means  a  good  deal  more 


160  FARM  MECHANICS 

in  check  rowing  than  when  the  corn  is  planted  in  drills. 
The  greatest  objection  to  hill  planting  is  the  crowding 
of  four  corn  plants  into  a  space  that  should  be  occupied 
by  one  plant. 

A  great  many  experiments  have  been  tried  to  scat- 
ter the  seeds  in  the  hill,  so  far  without  definite  results, 
except  when  considerable  additional  expense  is  in- 
curred. However,  a  cone  suspended  below  the  end  of 
the  dropping  tube  usually  will  scatter  the  seeds  so 
that  no  two  seeds  will  touch  each  other.  They  may  not 
drop  and  scatter  four  or  five  inches  apart,  but  these 
little  cones  will  help  a  good  deal.  They  must  be  ac- 
curately adjusted  so  the  point  of  the  cone  will  center 
in  the  middle  of  the  vertical  delivery  tube,  and  there 
must  be  plenty  of  room  all  around  the  cone  so  the 
corn  seed  kernels  won't  stick.  The  braces  that  hold 
the  cones  in  place  for  the  same  reason  must  be  turned 
edge  up  and  supported  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
plenty  of  clearance.  The  idea  is  that  four  kernels  of 
corn  drop  together.  They  strike  the  cone  and  are  scat- 
tered in  different  directions.  They  naturally  fly  to 
the  outsides  of  the  drill  mark  which  scatters  them  as 
wide  apart  as  the  width  of  the  shoe  that  opens  the  drill. 
The  advantage  of  scattering  seed  grains  in  the  hill  has 
been  shown  by  accurate  experiments  conducted  at  dif- 
ferent times  by  agricultural  colleges. 

GRAIN    DRILL 

To  know  exactly  how  much  seed  the  grain  drill  is 
using  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  many  acres  are  con- 
tained in  the  field.  Most  drills  have  an  attachment 
that  is  supposed  to  measure  how  many  acres  and  frac- 
tions of  acres  the  drill  covers.  Farmers  know  how 
much  grain  each  sack  contains,  so  they  can  estimate  as 


WORKING  THE  SOIL  161 

they  go  along,  provided  the  drill  register  is  correct.  It 
is  better  to  provide  a  check  on  the  drill  indicator.  Have 
the  "field  measured,  then  drive  stakes  along  one  side, 
indicating  one  acre,  five  acres  and  ten  acres.  When 
the  one-acre  stake  is  reached  the  operator  can  estimate 
very  closely  whether  the  drill  is  using  more  or  less 
seed  than  the  indicator  registers.  When  the  five-acre 
stake  is  reached  another  proof  is  available,  and  so  on 
across  the  field.  Next  in  importance  to  the  proper 
working  of  the  drill  is  straight  rows.  The  only  way  to 
avoid  gaps  is  to  drive  straight.  The  only  way  to  drive 
straight  is  to  sight  over  the  wheel  that  follows  the  last 
drill  mark.  Farmers  sometimes  like  to  ride  on  the 
grain  drill,  which  places  the  wheel  sighting  proposition 
out  of  the  question.  A  harrow  cart  may  be  hitched  be- 
hind the  wheel  of  the  grain  drill,  but  it  gives  a  side 
draft.  The  only  way  to  have  straight  rows  and  thor- 
ough work  is  to  walk  behind  the  end  of  the  drill.  This 
is  the  proper  way  to  use  a  drill,  anyway,  because  a  tooth 
may  clog  up  any  minute.  Unless  the  operator  is  walk- 
ing behind  the  drill  he  is  not  in  position  to  see  quickly 
whether  every  tooth  is  working  properly  or  not.  It  is 
hard  work  to  follow  a  drill  all  day  long,  but  it  pays  at 
harvest  time.  It  costs  just  as  much  to  raise  a  crop  of 
grain  that  only  covers  part  of  the  ground,  and  it  seems 
too  bad  to  miss  the  highest  possible  percentage  to  save 
a  little  hard  work  at  planting  time. 

SPECIAL   CROP   MACHINERY 

Special  crops  require  special  implements.  After 
they  are  provided,  the  equipment  must  be  kept  busy 
in  order  to  make  it  pay.  If  a  farmer  produces  five 
acres  of  potatoes  he  needs  a  potato  cutter,  a  planter,  a 
riding  cultivator,  a  sprayer  that  works  under  high 


162  FARM  MECHANICS 

pressure,  a  digger  and  a  sorter.  The  same  outfit  will 
answer  for  forty  acres,  which  would  reduce  the  per 
acre  cost  considerably.  No  farmer  can  afford  to  grow 
five  acres  of  potatoes  without  the  necessary  machinery, 
because  hand  labor  is  out  of  the  question  for  work  of 
that  kind. 

On  the  right  kind  of  soil,  and  within  reach  of  the 
right  market,  potatoes  are  money-makers.  But  they 
must  be  grown  every  year  because  the  price  of  pota- 
toes fluctuates  more  than  any  other  farm  crop.  Under 
the  right  conditions  potatoes  grown  for  five  years 
with  proper  care  and  good  management  are  sure  to 
make  money.  One  year  out  of  ^ye  will  break  even,  two 
years  will  make  a  little  money  and  the  other  two  yearsi 
will  make  big  money.  At  the  end  of  five  years,  with 
good  business  management,  the  potato  machinery  will 
be  all  paid  for,  and  there  will  be  a  substantial  profit. 

WHEEL  HOE 

In  growing  onions  and  other  truck  crops,  where  the 
rows  are  too  close  together  for  horse  cultivation,  the 
wheel  hoe  is  valuable.  In  fact,  it  is  almost  indispen- 
sable when  such  crops  are  grown  extensively.  The  best 
wheel  hoes  have  a  number  of  attachments.  "When  the 
seed-bed  has  been  carefully  prepared,  and  the  soil  is 
fine  and  loose,  the  wheel  hoe  may  be  used  as  soon  as 
the  young  plants  show  above  ground.  Men  who  are 
accustomed  to  operating  a  wheel  hoe  become  expert. 
They  can  work  almost  as  close  to  the  growing  plants 
with  an  implement  of  this  kind  as  they  can  with  an  or- 
dinary hand  hoe.  The  wheel  hoe,  or  hand  cultivator, 
works  the  ground  on  both  sides  of  the  row  at  once, 
and  it  does  it  quickly,  so  that  very  little  hand  weeding 
is  necessary. 


CHAPTER  VI 

HANDLING  THE  HAY  CEOP 
REVOLVING  HAYRAKE     ♦ 

About  the  first  contrivance  for  raking  hay  by  horse 
power  consisted  of  a  stick  eight  or  ten  feet  long  with 
double-end  teeth  running  through  it,  and  pointing  in 
two  directions.    These  rakes  were  improved  from  time 


Figure   143. — Grass  Hook,  for  working  around  borders  where  the 
lawn-mower  is  too  clumsy, 

to  time,  until  they  reached  perfection  for  this  kind  of 
tool.  They  have  since  been  superseded  by  spring- 
tooth  horse  rakes,  except  for  certain  purposes.  For 
pulling  field  peas,  and  some  kinds  of  beans,  the  old 
style  revolving  horse  rake  is  still  in  use. 

Improved  revolving  horse  rakes  have  a  center  tim- 
ber of  hardwood  about  4x6  inches  in  diameter.  The 
corners  are  rounded  to  facilitate  sliding  over  the 
ground.  A  rake  twelve  feet  long  will  have  about  eigh- 
teen double- end  teeth.  The  teeth  project  about  two 
and  one-half  feet  each  way  from  the  center  timber. 

163 


164 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Each  tooth  is  rounded  up,  sled-runner  fashion,  at  each 
end  so  it  will  point  forward  and  slide  along  over  and 
close  to  the  ground  without  catching  fast.  There  is 
an  iron  pull  rod,  or  long  hook,  attached  to  each  end  of 
the  center  bar  by  means  of  a  bolt  that  screws  into  the 
center  of  the  end  of  the  wooden  center  shaft,  thus 
forming  a  gudgeon  pin  so  the  shaft  can  revolve.  Two 
handles  are  fastened  by  band  iron  straps  to  rounded 


Figure  144. — Revolving  Hayrake.  The  center  piece  is  4"x6"xl2' 
long.  The  teeth  are  double  enders  1%"  square  and  4'  6"  long, 
which  allows  24"  of  rake  tooth  clear  of  the  center  timber.  Every 
stick  in  the  rake  is  carefully  selected.  It  is  drawn  by  one  horse. 
If  the  center  teeth  stick  into  the  ground  either  the  horse  must  stop 
instantly,  or  the  rake  must  flop  over,  or  there  will  be  a  repair  job. 
This  invention  has  never  been  improved  upon  for  pulling  Canada 
peas. 

recesses  or  girdles  cut  around  the  center  bar.  These 
girdles  are  just  far  enough  apart  for  a  man  to  walk 
between  and  to  operate  the  handles.  Wooden,  or  iron 
lugs,  reach  down  from  the  handles  with  pins  project- 
ing from  their  sides  to  engage  the  rake  teeth.  Two 
pins  project  from  the  left  lug  and  three  from  the  right. 
Sometimes  notches  are  made  in  the  lugs  instead  of 
pins.  Notches  are  better ;  they  may  be  rounded  up  to 
prevent  catching  when  the  rake  revolves.  As  the  rake 
slides  along,  the  driver  holds  the  rake  teeth  in  the 
proper  position  by  means  of  the  handles.  When  suffi- 
cient load  has  been  gathered  he  engages  the  upper 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP  165 

notch  in  the  right  hand  Ing,  releases  the  left  and  raises 
the  other  sufficient  to  point  the  teeth  into  the  ground. 
The  pull  of  the  horse  turns  the  rake  over  and  the  man 
grasps  the  teeth  again  with  the  handle  lugs  as  before. 
Unless  the  driver  is  careful  the  teeth  may  stick  in  the 
ground  and  turn  over  before  he  is  ready  for  it.  It  re- 
quires a  little  experience  to  use  such  a  rake  to  advan- 


Figure  145. — Buck  Rake.  When  hay  is  stacked  in  the  field  a  four- 
horse  buck  rake  is  the  quickest  way  to  bring  the  hay  to  the  stack. 
The  buck  rake  shown  is  16  feet  wide  and  the  2x4  teeth  are  11  feet 
long.  Two  horses  are  hitched  to  each  end  and  two  drivers  stand  on 
the  ends  of  the  buck  rake  to  operate  it.  The  load  is  pushed  under 
the  horse  fork,  the  horses  are  swung  outward  and  the  buck  rake  is 
dragged  backward. 

tage.  No  better  or  cheaper  way  has  ever  been  invented 
for  harvesting  Canada  peas.  The  only  objections  are 
that  it  shells  some  of  the  riper  pods  and  it  gathers  up  a 
certain  amount  of  earth  with  the  vines  which  makes 
dusty  threshing. 

HAY-TEDDER 

The  hay-tedder  is  an  English  invention,  which 
has  been  adopted  by  farmers   in  rainy   sections  of 


166  FARM  MECHANICS 

the  United  States.  It  is  an  energetic  kicker  that  scat- 
ters the  hay  swaths  and  drops  the  hay  loosely  to 
dry  between  showers.  Hay  may  be  made  quickly 
by  starting  the  tedder  an  hour  behind  the  mowing 
machine. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  cut  timothy  hay  in  the  morn- 
ing and  put  it  in  the  mow  in  the  afternoon,  by  shaking 
it  up  thoroughly  once  or  twice  with  the  hay-tedder. 
"When  clover  is  mixed  with  the  timothy,  it  is  necessary 
to  leave  it  in  the  field  until  the  next  day,  but  the  time 
between  cutting  and  mowing  is  shortened  materially 
by  the  use  of  the  tedder. 

Grass  cut  for  hay  may  be  kicked  apart  in  the  field 
early  during  the  wilting  process  without  shattering  the 
leaves.  If  left  too  long,  then  the  hay-tedder  is  a  dam- 
age because  it  kicks  the  leaves  loose  from  the  stems  and 
the  most  valuable  feeding  material  is  wasted.  But 
it  is  a  good  implement  if  rightly  used.  In  catchy 
weather  it  often  means  the  difference  between  bright, 
valuable  hay  and  black,  musty  stuff,  that  is  hardly  fit 
to  feed. 

Hay-tedders  are  expensive.  Where  two  farmers 
neighbor  together  the  expense  may  be  shared,  because 
the  tedder  does  its  work  in  two  or  three  hours'  time. 
Careful  farmers  do  not  cut  down  much  grass  at  one 
time.  The  tedder  scatters  two  mowing  swaths  at  once. 
In  fact  the  mowing  machine,  hay-tedder  and  horserake 
should  all  fit  together  for  team  work  so  they  will  fol- 
low each  other  without  skips  or  unnecessary  laps.  The 
dividing  board  of  the  mowing-machine  marks  a  path 
for  one  of  the  horses  to  follow  and  it  is  difficult  to  keep 
him  out  of  it.  But  two  horses  pulHng  a  hay-tedder  will 
straddle  the  open  strip  between  the  swaths  when  the 
tedder  is  twice  the  width  of  the  cut. 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP 


167 


HAY  SKIDS 


Hay  slips,  or  hay  skids,  are  used  on  the  old  smooth 
fields  in  the  eastern  states.  They  are  usually  made  of 
seven-eighths-inch  boards  dressed  preferably  on  one 
side  only.    They  are  used  smooth  side  to  the  ground  to 


Figure  W6. — Hay  Skid.  This  hay  skid  is  8  feet  wide  and  16  feet 
long.  It  is  made  of  %"  lumber  put  together  with  2"  carriage  bolts — 
plenty  of  them.  The  round  boltheads  are  countersunk  into  the 
bottom  of  the  skid  and  the  nuts  are  drawn  down  tight  on  the  cleats. 
It  makes  a  low-down,  easy-pitching,  hay-hauling  device. 


Figure  147. — Hay  Sling.  It  takes  no  longer  to  hoist  500  pounds 
of  hay  than  100  pounds  if  the  rig  is  large  and  strong  enough.  Four 
feet  wide  by  ten  feet  in  length  is  about  right  for  handling  hay 
quickly.  But  the  toggle  must  reach  to  the  ends  of  the  rack  if  used 
on  a  wagon. 


slip  along  easily.  Rough  side  is  up  to  better  hold  the 
hay  from  slipping.  The  long  runner  boards  are  held 
together  by  cross  pieces  made  of  inch  boards  twelve 
inches  wide  and  well  nailed  at  each  intersection  with 
nails  well  clinched.  Small  carriage  bolts  are  better 
than  nails  but  the  heads  should  be  countersunk  into  the 
bottom  with  the  points  up.    They  should  be  used  with- 


168 


FARM  MECHANICS 


out  washers  and  the  ends  of  the  bolts  cut  close  to  the 
sunken  nuts.  The  front  end  of  the  skid  is  rounded  up 
slightly^  sled  runner  fashion,  as  much  as  the  boards 
will  bear,  to  avoid  digging  into  the  sod  to  destroy  either 
the  grass  roots  or  crowns  of  the  plants.    Hay  usually  is 


Figure  148. —  (1)  Four-Tined  Derrick  Fork.  (2)  Pea  Guard.  An 
extension  guard  to  lift  pea-vines  high  enough  for  the  sickle  is  the 
cleanest  way  to  harvest  Canada  peas.  The  old-fashioned  way  of 
pulling  peas  with  a  dull  scythe  has  gone  into  oblivion.  But  the 
heavy  bearing  varieties  still  persist  in  crawling  on  the  ground.  If 
the  vines  are  lifted  and  cut  clean  they  can  be  raked  into  windrows 
with  a  spring  tooth  hayrake.  (3)  Haystack  Knife.  This  style  of 
hay-cutting  knife  is  used  almost  universally  on  stacks  and  in  hay- 
mows. There  is  less  use  for  hay-knives  since  farmers  adopted  power 
hayforks  to  lift  hay  out  of  a  mow  as  well  as  to  put  it  in. 


forked  by  hand  from  the  windrows  on  to  the  skids. 
Sometimes  hay  slings  are  placed  on  the  skids  and  the 
hay  is  forked  on  to  the  slings  carefully  in  layers  lapped 
over  each  other  in  such  a  way  as  to  hoist  on  to  the  stack 
without  spilling  out  at  the  sides.  Four  hundred  to 
eight  hundred  pounds  makes  a  good  load  for  one  of 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP 


169 


these  skids,  according  to  horse  power  and  unevenness 
of  the  ground.  They  save  labor,  as  compared  to  wag- 
ons, because  there  is  no  pitching  up.     All  hoisting  is 


Figure  149. — Double  Harpoon  Hayfork.  This  is  a  large  size  fork 
with  extra  long  legs.  For  handling  long  hay  that  hangs  together 
well  this  fork  is  a  great  success.  It  may  be  handled  as  quickly  as 
a  smaller  fork  and  it  carries  a  heavy  load. 

supposed  to  be  done  by  horse  power  with  the  aid  of  a 
hay  derrick. 

WESTERN  HAY  DERRICKS 

Two  derricks  for  stacking  hay,  that  are  used  exten- 
sively in  the  alfalfa  districts  of  Idaho,  are  shown  in 
the  illustration,  Figure  151.    The  derrick  to  the  left  is 


170  FARM  MECHANICS 

made  with  a  square  base  of  timbers  which  supports  an 
upright  mast  and  a  horizontal  boom.  The  timber  base 
is  sixteen  feet  square,  made  of  five  sticks  of  timber, 
each  piece  being  8x8  inches  square  by  16  feet  in  length. 
Two  of  the  timbers  rest  flat  on  the  ground  and  are 
rounded  up  at  the  ends  to  facilitate  moving  the  derrick 
across  the  stubble  ground  or  along  the  road  to  the  next 


Figure  150. — Six-Tined  Grapple  Hayfork.  It  is  balanced  to  hang 
as  shown  in  the  drawing  when  empty.  It  sinks  into  the  hay  easily 
and  dumps  quickly  when  the  clutch  is  released. 

hayfield.  These  sleigh  runner  timbers  are  notched  on 
the  upper  side  near  each  end  and  at  the  middle  to  re- 
ceive the  three  cross  timbers.  The  cross  timbers  also 
are  notched  or  recessed  about  a  half  inch  deep  to  make 
a  sort  of  double  mortise.  The  timbers  are  bound  to- 
gether at  the  intersections  by  iron  U-clamps  that  pass 
around  both  timbers  and  fasten  through  a  flat  iron 
plate  on  top  of  the  upper  timbers.  These  flat  plates  or 
bars  have  holes  near  the  ends  and  the  threaded  ends  of 
the  U-irons  pass  through  these  holes  and  the  nuts  are 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP 


171 


screwed  down  tight.  The  sleigh  runner  timbers  are  re- 
cessed diagonally  across  the  bottom  to  fit  the  round 
U-irons  which  are  let  into  the  bottoms  oi  the  timbers 
just  enough  to  prevent  scraping  the  earth  when  the 


Figure  151. — Idaho  Hay  Derricks.  Two  styles  of  hay  derricks  are 
used  to  stack  alfalfa  hay  in  Idaho.  The  drawing  to  the  left  shows 
the  one  most  in  use  because  it  is  easier  made  and  easier  to  move. 
The  derrick  to  the  right  usually  is  made  larger  and  more  powerful. 
Wire  cable  is  generally  used  with  both  derricks  because  rope  wears 
out  quickly.  They  are  similar  in  operation  but  different  in  construc- 
tion. The  base  of  each  is  16  feet  square  and  the  high  ends  of  the 
booms  reach  up  nearly  40  feet.  A  single  hayfork  -'ope,  oi  wire  cable, 
is  used  ;  it  is  about  65  feet  long.  The  reach  is  sufficient  to  drop  the 
hay  in  the  center  of  a  stack  24  feet  wide. 


derrick  is  being  moved.  These  iron  U-clamp  fasteners 
are  much  stronger  and  better  than  bolts  through  the 
timbers. 

There  are  timber  braces  fitted  acrass  the  corners 
which,  are  bolted  through  the  outside  timbers  to  brace 


172 


FARM  MECHANICS 


the  frame  against  a  diamond  tendency  when  moving 
the  derrick.  There  is  considerable  strain  when  passing 
over  uneven  ground.    It  is  better  to  make  the  frame  so 


Figure  152. — Hay  Carrier  Carriage.  Powerful  carriers  are  part 
of  the  new  barn.  The  track  is  double  and  the  wheels  run  on  both 
tracks  to  stand  a  side  pull  and  to  start  quickly  and  run  steadily 
when  the  clutch  is  released. 


solid  that  it  cannot  get  out  of  square.  The  mast  is  a 
stick  of  timber  8  inches  square  and  20  or  24  feet  long. 
This  mast  is  securely  fastened  solid  to  the  center  of 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP  173 

the  frame  by  having  the  bottom  end  mortised  into  the 
center  cross  timber  at  the  middle  and  it  is  braced  solid 
and  held  perpendicular  to  the  framework  by  4''x4'' 
wooden  braces  at  the  corners.  These  braces  are  notched 
at  the  top  ends  to  fit  the  corners  of  the  mast  and 
are  beveled  at  the  bottom  ends  to  fit  flat  on  top  of 
the  timbers.  They  are  held  in  place  by  bolts  and  by 
strap  iron  or  band  iron  bands.  These  bands  are  drilled 
with  holes  and  are  spiked  through  into  the  timbers 


Figure  153. —  (1)  Hayfork  Hitch.  A  whiffletree  pulley  doubles  the 
speed  of  the  fork.  The  knot  in  the  rope  gives  double  power  to  start 
the  load.  (2)  Rafter  Grapple,  for  attaching  an  extra  pulley  to  any 
part  of  the  barn  roof. 

with  four-inch  or  five-inch  wire  nails.  Holes  are  drilled 
through  the  band  iron  the  right  size  and  at  the  proper 
places  for  the  nails.  The  mast  is  made  round  at  the 
top  and  is  fitted  with  a  heavy  welded  iron  ring  or  band 
to  prevent  splitting.  The  boom  is  usually  about  30 
feet  long.  Farmers  prefer  a  round  pole  when  they  can 
get  it.  It  is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  mast  by  an  iron 
stirrup  made  by  a  blacksmith.  This  stirrup  is  made 
to  fit  loosely  half  way  around  the  boom  one-third  of  the 
way  up  from  the  big  end,  which  makes  the  small  end 
of  the  boom  project  20  feet  out  from  the  upper  end 
of  the  mast.     The  iron  stirrup  is  made  heavy  and 


174 


FARM  MECHANICS 


strong.  It  has  a  round  iron  gudgeon  ly^''  in  diameter 
that  reaches  down  into  the  top  of  the  mast  about  18 
inches.  The  shoulder  of  the  stirrup  is  supported  by  a 
square,  flat  iron  plate  which  rests  on  and  covers  the 
top  of  the  mast  and  has  the  corners  turned  down.  •  It  is 
made  large  to  shed  water  and  protect  the  top  of  the 
mast.  This  plate  has  a  hole  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter  in  the  center  through  which  the  stirrup 


Figure  154. — -Hay  Rope  Pulleys.     The  housing  of  the  pulley  to  the 
left  prevents  the  rope  from  running  off  the  sheaves. 


gudgeon  passes  as  it  enters  the  top  of  the  mast.  A  farm 
chain,  or  logging  chain,  is  fastened  to  the  large  end  of 
the  boom  by  passing  the  chain  around  the  boom  and 
engaging  the  round  hook.  The  grab  hook  end  of  the 
chain  is  passed  around  the  timber  below  and  is  hooked 
back  to  give  it  the  right  length,  which  doubles  the  part 
of  the  chain  within  reach  of  the  man  in  charge.  This 
double  end  of  the  chain  is  lengthened  or  shortened  to 
elevate  the  outer  end  of  the  boom  to  fit  the  stack.  The 
small  outer  end  of  the  boom  is  thus  raised  as  the  stack 
goes  up. 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP  175 

An  ordinary  horse  fork  and  tackle  is  used  to  hoist  the 
hay.  Three  single  pulleys  are  attached,  one  to  the 
outer  end  of  the  boom,  one  near  the  top  of  the  mast, 
and  the  other  at  the  bottom  of  the  mast  so  that  the  rope 
passes  easily  and  freely  through  the  three  pulleys  and 
at  the  same  time  permits  the  boom  to  swing  around  as 
the  fork  goes  up  from  the  wagon  rack  over  the  stack. 
This  swinging  movement  is  regulated  by  tilting  the 
derrick  towards  the  stack  so  that  the  boom  swings  over 


Figure  155. — Gambrel  Whiffletree,  for  use  in  hoisting  hay  to  pre- 
vent entanglements.  It  is  also  handy  when  cultivating  around 
fruit-trees. 

the  stack  by  its  own  weight  or  by  the  weight  of  the  hay 
on  the  horse  fork.  Usually  a  wire  truss  is  rigged  over 
the  boom  to  stiffen  it.  The  wire  is  attached  to  the  boom 
at  both  ends  and  the  middle  of  the  wire  is  sprung  up  to 
rest  on  a  bridge  placed  over  the  stirrup. 

Farmers  like  this  simple  form  of  hay  derrick  because 
it  is  cheaply  made  and  it  may  be  easily  moved  because 
it  is  not  heavy.  It  is  automatic  and  it  is  about  as  cheap 
as  any  good  derrick  and  it  is  the  most  satisfactory  for 
ordinary  use.  The  base  is  large  enough  to  make  it  solid 
and  steady  when  in  use.  Before  moving  the  point  of 
the  boom  is  lowered  to  a  level  position  so  that  the  der- 


176  FARM  MECHANICS 

rick  is  not  top-heavy.  There  is  little  danger  of  upset- 
ting upon  ordinary  farm  lands.  Also  the  width  of  16 
feet  will  pass  along  country  roads  without  meeting 
serious  obstacles.  Hay  slings  usually  are  made  too 
narrow  and  too  short.  The  ordinary  little  hay  sling  is 
prone  to  tip  sideways  and  spill  the  hay.  It  is  respon- 
sible for  a  great  deal  of  profanity.  The  hay  derrick 
shown  to  the  right  is  somewhat  different  in  construc- 
tion, but  is  quite  similar  in  action.     The  base  is  the 


Figure  156. — Cable  Hay  Stacker.  The  wire  cable  is  supported  by 
the  two  bipods  and  is  secured  at  each  end  by  snubbing  stakes.  Two 
single-cable  collars  are  clamped  to  the  cable  to  prevent  the  bipods 
from  slipping  in  at  the  top.  Two  double-cable  clamps  hold  the 
ends  of  the  cables  to  form  stake  loops. 

same  but  the  mast  turns  on  a  gudgeon  stepped  into  an 
iron  socket  mortised  into  the  center  timber. 

The  wire  hoisting  cable  is  threaded  differently,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing.  This  style  of  derrick  is  made 
larger,  sometimes  the  peak  reaches  up  40'  above  the 
base.  The  extra  large  ones  are  awkward  to  move  but 
they  build  fine  big  stacks. 

CALIFORNIA  HAY  RICKER 

In  the  West  hay  is  often  put  up  in  long  ricks  in- 
stead of  stacks.  One  of  my  jobs  in  California  was  to 
put  up  2,700  acres  of  wild  hay  in  the  Sacramento  Val- 


HANDLING  THE  HAY  CROP 


177 


ley.  I  made  four  rickers  and  eight  buck  rakes  similar 
to  the  ones  shown  in  the  illustrations.  Each  rieker  was 
operated  by  a  crew  of  eight  men.  Four  men  drove  two 
buck  rakes.     There  were  two  on  the  rick,  one  at  the 


Figure  157. — California  Hay  Rieker,  for  putting  either  wild  hay 
or  alfalfa  quickly  in  ricks.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  home- 
made buck  rakes.  This  rieker  works  against  the  end  of  the  rick 
and  is  backed  away  each  time  to  start  a  new  bench.  The  upright 
is  made  of  light  poles  or  2x4s  braced  as  shown.  It  should  be  28  or 
30  feet  high.  Iron  stakes  hold  the  bottom,  while  guy  wires  steady 
the  top. 

fork  and  one  to  drive  the  hoisting  rig.  Ten  mowing 
machines  did  most  of  the  cutting  but  I  hired  eight  more 
machines  towards  the  last,  as  the  latest  grass  was  get- 
ting too  ripe.  The  crop  measured  more  than  2,100 
tons  and  it  was  all  put  in  ricks,  stacks  and  barns  with- 
out a  drop  of  rain  on  it.    I  should  add  that  rain  sel- 


178  FARM  MECHANICS 

dom  falls  in  the  lower  Sacramento  Valley  during  the 
haying  season  in  the  months  of  May  and  June.  This 
refers  to  wild  hay,  which  is  made  up  of  burr  clover, 
wild  oats  and  volunteer  wheat  and  barley. 

Alfalfa  is  cut  from  five  to  seven  times  in  the  hot  in- 
terior valleys,  so  that  if  a  farmer  is  rash  enough  to 
plant  alfalfa  under  irrigation  his  haying  thereafter 
will  reach  from  one  rainy  season  to  the  next. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FAEM  CONVEYANCES 

STONE-BOAT 

One  of  the  most  useful  and  one  of  the  least  orna- 
mental conveyances  on  a  farm  is  the  stone-boat.  It  is 
a  low-down  handy  rig  for  moving  heavy  commodities 
in  summer  as  well  as  in  winter.  No  other  sleigh  or 
wagon  will  equal  a  stone-boat  for  carrying  plows  or 


Figure  158. — Stone-Boat.  Stump  logs  are  selected  for  the  planks. 
The  bend  of  the  planks  is  the  natural  curve  of  the  large  roots.  The 
sawing  is  done  by  band  saw  cutting  from  two  directions. 

harrows  from  one  field  to  another.  It  is  handy  to  tote 
bags  of  seed  to  supply  the  grain  drill,  to  haul  a  barrel 
of  water,  feed  for  the  hogs,  and  a  great  many  other 
chores. 

When  the  country  was  new,  sawmills  made  a  business 
of  sawing  stone-boat  plank.  Trees  for  stone-boat  staves 
were  cut  close  to  the  ground  and  the  natural  crooks  of 
the  roots  were  used  for  the  noses  of  sleigh  runners  and 
for  stone-boats.  But  cast-iron  noses  are  now  manufac- 
tured with  recesses  to  receive  the  ends  of  straight  ordi- 
nary  hardwood    planks.      These    cast-iron    ends   are 

179 


180 


FARM  MECHANICS 


rounded  up  in  front  to  make  the  necessary  nose  crook. 
The  front  plank  cross  piece  is  bolted  well  towards  the 
front  ends  of  the  runner  planks.  Usually  there  are  two 
other  hardwood  plank  cross  pieces,  one  near  the  rear 
end  and  the  other  about  one-third  of  the  way  back  from 
the  front.  Placing  the  cross  pieces  in  this  way  gives 
room  between  to  stand  a  barrel. 

The  cross  pieces  are  bolted  through  from  the  bottom 
up.  Round-headed  bolts  are  used  and  they  are  counter- 


Figure  159. — Wheelbarrow.  This  factory-made  wheelbarrow  is  the 
only  pattern  worth  bothering  with.  It  is  cheap  and  answers  the 
purpose  better  than  the  heavier  ones  with  removable  side  wings. 


sunk,  to  come  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  sliding 
planks.  The  nuts  are  countersunk  into  the  cross 
pieces  by  boring  holes  about  one-quarter  inch  deep. 
The  holes  are  a  little  larger  than  the  cornerwise 
diameter  of  the  nuts.  No  washers  are  used,  and 
the  nuts  are  screwed  down  tight  into  the  plank. 
The  ends  of  the  bolts  are  cut  off  even  and  filed 
smooth.  The  nuts  are  placed  sharp  corner  side  down 
and  are  left  nearly  flush  on  top  or  even  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  cross  pieces.  In  using  a  stone-boat,  nobody 
wants  a  projection  to  catch  any  part  of  the  load. 

Regular   double-tree   clevises   are   attached   to  the 
corners  of  the  old-fashioned  stone-boat  and  the  side 


FARM  CONVEYANCES  181 

chains  are  brought  together  to  a  ring  and  are  just  about 
long  enough  to  form  an  equilateral  triangle  with  the 
front  end  of  the  stone-boat.  Cast-iron  fronts  usually 
have  a  projection  in  the  center  for  the  clevis  hitch. 


OXEN  ON  A  NEW  ENGLAND  FARM 

One  of  the  most  interesting  experiences  on  a  New 
England  farm  is  to  get  acquainted  with  the  manner  in 
which  oxen  are  pressed  into  farm  service.  One  reason 
why  oxen  have  never  gone  out  of  fashion  in  New  Eng- 
land is  the  fact  that  they  are  patient  enough  to  plow 
stony  ground  without  smashing  the  plow. 

A  great  deal  of  New  England  farm  land  has  been  re- 
claimed by  removing  a  portion  of  the  surface  stone. 
In  the  processes  of  freezing  and  thawing  and  cultiva- 
tion, stones  from  underneath  keep  working  up  to  the 
surface  so  that  it  requires  considerable  skill  to  do  the 
necessary  plowing  and  cultivating.  Oxen  ease  the 
plowpoint  over  or  around  a  rock  so  it  can  immediately 
dip  in  again  to  the  full  depth  of  the  furrow.  A  good 
yoke  of  cattle  well  trained  are  gentle  as  well  as  strong 
and  powerful. 

Oxen  are  cheaper  than  horses  to  begin  with  and 
they  are  valuable  for  beef  when  they  are  not  needed 
any  longer  as  work  animals.  The  Holstein  breed  seems 
to  have  the  preference  for  oxen  with  New  England 
farmers.  The  necessary  harness  for  a  pair  of  cattle 
consists  of  an  ox  yoke  with  a  ringbolt  through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  yoke,  midway  between  the  two  oxen.  A 
heavy  iron  ring  about  five  inches  in  diameter,  made  of 
round  iron,  hangs  from  the  ring  bolt.  There  are  two 
oxbows  to  hold  the  yoke  in  place  on  the  necks  of  the 
cattle.    A  logging  chain  with  a  round  hook  on  one  end 


182  FARM  MECHANICS 

and  a  grab  hook  on  the  other  end  completes  the  yoking 
outfit. 

The  round  hook  of  the  chain  is  hitched  into  the  ring 
in  the  plow  clevis.  The  chain  is  passed  through  the 
large  iron  ring  in  the  oxbow  and  is  doubled  back  to  get 
the  right  length.  The  grab  hook  is  so  constructed  that 
it  fits  over  one  link  of  the  chain  flatwise  so  that  the  next 
link  standing  crosswise  prevents  it  from  slipping. 

The  mechanism  of  a  logging  chain  is  extremely  sim- 
ple, positive  in  action  and  especially  well  adapted  to 
the  use  for  which  it  is  intended.  The  best  mechanical 
inventions  often  pass  without  notice  because  of  their 
simplicity.  Farmers  have  used  logging  chains  for  gen- 
erations with  hooks  made  on  this  plan  without  realiz- 
ing that  they  were  profiting  by  a  high  grade  invention 
that  embodies  superior  merit. 

In  yoking  oxen  to  a  wagon  the  hitch  is  equally  sim- 
ple. The  end  of  the  wagon  tongue  is  placed  in  the  ring 
in  the  ox  yoke,  the  round  hook  engages  with  a  draw- 
bolt  under  the  hammer  strap  bar.  The  small  grab  hook 
is  passed  through  the  large  yoke  ring  and  is  brought 
back  and  engaged  with  a  chain  link  at  the  proper  dis- 
tance to  stretch  the  chain  taut. 

The  process  of  yoking  oxen  and  hitching  them  to  a 
wagon  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  performances  on 
a  farm.  The  off  ox  works  on  the  off  side,  or  far  side 
from  the  driver.  He  usually  is  the  larger  of  the  two 
and  the  more  intelligent.  The  near  (pronounced 
n-i-g-h)  ox  is  nearest  to  the  driver  who  walks  to  the  left. 
Old  plows  turned  the  furrow  to  the  right  so  the  driver 
could  walk  on  hard  ground.  In  this  way  the  awkward- 
ness and  ignorance  of  the  near  ox  is  played  against  the 
docility  and  superior  intelligence  of  the  off  ox.  In 
yoking  the  two  together  the  yoke  is  first  placed  on  the 


FARM  CONVEYANCES  183 

neck  of  the  off  ox  and  the  near  ox  is  invited  to  come 
under.  This  expression  is  so  apt  that  a  great  many- 
years  ago  it  became  a  classic  in  the  hands  of  able  writ- 
ers to  suggest  submission  or  slavery  termed  '^coming 
under  the  yoke."  Coming  under  the  yoke,  however, 
for  the  New  England  ox,  in  these  days  of  abundant 
feeding,  is  no  hardship.  The  oxen  are  large  and  power- 
ful and  the  work  they  have  to  do  is  just  about  sufficient 
to  give  them  the  needed  exercise  to  enjoy  their  alfalfa 
hay  and  feed  of  oats  or  corn. 

TRAVOY 

One  of  the  first  implements  used  by  farm  settlers  in 
the  timbered  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
was  a  three-cornered  sled  made  from  the  fork  of  a  tree. 
This  rough  sled,  in  the  French  speaking  settlements, 
was  called  a  ^^travoy."  Whether  it  was  of  Indian  or 
French  invention  is  not  known ;  probably  both  Indians 
and  French  settlers  used  travoys  for  moving  logs  in  the 
woods  before  American  history  was  much  written.  The 
legs  or  runners  of  a  travoy  are  about  five  feet  long. 
There  is  a  bunk  which  extends  crossways  from  one  run- 
ner to  the  other,  about  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  way 
back  from  the  turned-up  nose.  This  bunk  is  fastened 
to  the  runners  by  means  of  wooden  pins  and  U- 
shaped  bows  fitted  into  grooves  cut  around  the  upper 
half  of  the  bunk  near  the  ends.  Just  back  of  the 
turned  up  nose  is  another  cross  piece  in  the  shape  of  a 
stout  wooden  pin  or  iron  bolt  that  is  passed  through  an 
auger  hole  extending  through  both  legs  from  side  to 
side  of  the  travoy.  The  underside  of  the  crotch  is 
hollowed  out  in  front  of  the  bolt  to  make  room  to  pass 
the  logging  chain  through  so  it  comes  out  in  front  un- 
der the  turned  up  nose. 


184 


FARM  MECHANICS 


The  front  of  the  travoy  is  turned  up,  sled  runner 
fashion,  by  hewing  the  wood  with  an  axe  to  give  it  the 
proper  shape.  Travoys  are  used  to  haul  logs  from  a 
thick  woods  to  the  skidways.  The  manner  of  using  a 
travoy  is  interesting.  It  is  hauled  by  a  yoke  of  cattle 
or  a  team  of  horses  to  the  place  where  the  log  lies  in  the 
woods.  The  round  hook  end  of  the  logging  chain  is 
thrown  over  the  butt  end  of  the  log  and  pulled  back 
under  the  log  then  around  the  bunk  just  inside  of  the 


Figure  160. — Travoy. 


A  log-hauling  sled  made  from  the  fork  of  a 
tree. 


runner  and  hooked  fast  upon  itself.  The  travoy  is  then 
leaned  over  against  the  log,  the  grab  hook  end  of  the 
chain  is  brought  over  the  log  and  over  the  travoy  and 
straightened  out  at  right  angles  to  the  log.  The  cattle 
are  hitched  to  the  end  of  the  logging  chain  and  started. 
This  kind  of  a  hitch  rolls  the  log  over  on  top  of  the 
bunk  on  the  travoy.  The  cattle  are  then  unhitched. 
The  grab  hook  end  of  the  chain  thus  released  is  passed 
down  and  around  under  the  other  end  of  the  bunk  from 
behind.  The  chain  is  then  passed  over  the  bolt  near 
the  nose  of  the  travoy  and  pulled  down  through  the 
opening  and  out  in  front  from  under  the  nose.     The 


FARM  CONVEYANCES 


185 


small  grab  hook  of  the  logging  chain  is  then  passed 
through  the  clevis,  in  the  doubletree,  if  horses  are 
used,  or  the  ring  in  the  yoke  if  cattle  are  used,  and 
hitched  back  to  the  proper  length.  A  little  experience 
is  necessary  to  regulate  the  length  of  the  chain  to  give 
the  proper  pull.  The  chain  should  be  short  enough  so 
the  pull  lifts  a  little.  It  is  generally  conceded  by 
woodsmen  that  a  short  hitch  moves  a  log  easier  than  a 
long  hitch.  However,  there  is  a  medium.  There  are 
limitations  which  experience  only  can  determine.  A 
travoy  is  useful  in  dense  woods  where  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  undergrowth  or  where  there  are  places  so 
rough  that  bobsleighs  cannot  be  used  to  advantage. 

LINCHPIN  FARM  WAGONS 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  wheels  of  handy 
wagons  about  the  farm  are  held  on  axle  journals  by 


Figure  161. — Cross  Reach  Wagon.  This  wagon  is  coupled  for  a 
trailer,  but  it  works  just  as  well  when  used  with  a  tongue  and 
horses  as  a  handy  farm  wagon.  The  bunks  are  made  rigid  and 
parallel  by  means  of  a  double  reach.  There  are  two  king  bolts  to 
permit  both  axles  to  turn.     Either  end  is  front. 


means  of  linchpins  in  the  old-fashioned  manner.  There 
are  iron  hub-bands  on  both  ends  of  the  hubs  which  pro- 
ject several  inches  beyond  the  wood.  This  is  the  best 
protection  against  sand  to  prevent  it  from  working  into 
the  wheel  boxing  that  has  ever  been  invented.    Sand 


186 


FARM  MECHANICS 


from  the  felloes  scatters  down  onto  these  iron  bands 
and  rolls. off  to  the  ground.  There  is  a  hole  through 
each  band  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  hubs  to  pass  the 
linchpin  through  so  that  before  taking  off  a  wheel  to 
oil  the  journal  it  must  first  be  turned  so  the  hole  comes 
directly  over  the  linchpin.  To  pry  out  the  linchpin  the 
drawbolt  is  used.    Old-fashioned  drawbolts  were  made 


Figure  162. — Wagon  Brake.  The  hounds  are  tilted  up  to  show  the 
brake  beam  and  the  manner  of  attaching  it.  The  brake  lever  is 
fastened  to  the  forward  side  of  the  rear  bolster  and  turns  up  along- 
side of  the  bolster  stake.  The  brake  rod  reaches  from  the  upper  end 
of  the  lever  elbow  to  the  foot  ratchet  at  the  front  end  of  the  wagon 
box. 


Figure  163.— Bolster  Spring. 

with  a  chisel  shaped  end  tapered  from  both  sides  to  a 
thickness  of  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch.  This  thin 
wedge  end  of  the  drawbolt  is  placed  under  the  end  of 
the  linchpin.  The  lower  side  of  the  hub-band  forms  a 
fulcrum  to  pry  the  pin  up  through  the  hole  in  the  up- 
per side  of  the  sand-band  projection.  The  linchpin  has 
a  hook  on  the  outer  side  of  the  upper  end  so  the  lever 
is  transferred  to  the  top  of  the  sand-band  when  another 
pry  lifts  the  pin  clear  out  of  the  hole  in  the  end  of  the 
iaxle  so  the  wheel  may  be  removed  and  grease  applied 


FARM  CONVEYANCES  187 

to  the  axle.  The  drawbolt  on  a  linchpin  wagon  usu- 
ally has  a  head  made  in  the  form  of  the  jaws  of  a 
wrench.    The  wrench  is  the  right  size  to  fit  the  nuts  on 


Figure      164. — Wagon       Seat  Figure     165. — Hollow     Malle* 

Spring.     The    metal    block    fits  able  Iron  Bolster  Stake  to  hold 

over    the     top     of     the     bolster  a    higher    wooden    stake    when 

stake.  necessary. 

the  wagon  brace  irons  so  that  the  drawbolt  answers 
three  purposes. 

SAND-BANDS 

Many  parts  of  farm  machinery  require  projecting 
sand-bands  to  protect  the  journals  from  sand  and  dust. 
Most  farms  have  some  sandy  fields  or  ridges.  Some 
farms  are  all  sand  or  sandy  loam.  Even  dust  from  clay 
is  injurious  to  machinery.  There  is  more  or  less  grit 
in  the  finest  clay.  The  most  important  parts  of  farm 
machinery  are  supposed  to  be  protected  by  oil-cups 
containing  cotton  waste  to  strain  the  oil,  together  with 
covers  in  the  shape  of  metal  caps.  These  are  necessary 
protections  and  they  help,  but  they  are  not  adequate 
for  all  conditions.  It  is  not  easy  to  keep  sand  out  of 
bearings  on  machinery  that  shakes  a  good  deal. 
Wooden  plugs  gather  sand  and  dust.  When  a  plug  is 
pulled  the  sand  drops  into  the  oil  hole.  Farm  ma- 
chinery that  is  properly  designed  protects  itself  from 
sand  and  dust.  In  buying  a  machine  this  particular 
feature  should  appeal  to  the  farmers  more  than  it 


188 


FARM  MECHANICS 


does.  Leather  caps  are  a  nuisance.  They  are  a  sort 
of  patchwork  to  finish  the  job  that  the  manufacturer 
commences.  A  man  who  is  provident  enough  to  sup- 
ply himself  with  good  working  tools  and  is  suflSciently 


Figure  166. — Sand  Caps.  Not  one  manufacturer  in  a  hundred 
knows  how  to  keep  sand  out  of  an  axle  bearing.  Still  it  is  one  of  the 
simplest  tricks  in  mechanics.  The  only  protection  an  axle  needs  is 
long  ferrules  that  reach  out  three  or  four  inches  beyond  the  hub  at 
both  ends.  Old-fashioned  Linchpin  farm  wagons  were  built  on  this 
principle.  The  hubs  held  narrow  rings  instead  of  skeins,  but  they 
wore  for  years. 

careful  to  take  care  of  them,  usually  is  particular  about 
the  appearance  as  well  as  the  usefulness  of  his  tools, 
machinery  and  implements. 


BOBSLEIGHS 

On  Northern  farms  bobsleighs  are  as  important  in 
the  winter  time  as  a  farm  wagon  in  summer.  There  are 
different  ways  of  putting  bobsleighs  together  accord- 
ing to  the  use  required  of  them.  When  using  heavy 
bobsleighs  for  road  work,  farmers  favor  the  bolster 
reach  to  connect  the  front  and  rear  sleighs.  With  this 
attachment  the  horses  may  be  turned  around  against 
the  rear  sled.     The  front  bolster  fits  into  a  recessed 


FARM  CONVEYANCES  189 

plate  bolted  to  the  bench  plank  of  the  front  sleigh. 
This  plate  is  a  combination  of  wearing  plate  and  circle 
and  must  be  kept  oiled  to  turn  easily  under  a  heavy 
load.  It  not  only  facilitates  turning,  but  it  prevents 
the  bolster  from  catching  on  the  raves  or  on  the  up- 
turned nose  of  the  front  bob  when  turning  short. 

The  heavy  hardwood  plank  reach  that  connects  the 
two  bolsters  is  put  through  a  mortise  through  the  front 
bolster  and  is  fastened  rigidly  by  an  extra  large  king- 
bolt. The  reach  plays  back  and  forth  rather  loosely 
through  a  similar  mortise  in  the  other  bolster  on  the 
rear  sleigh.  The  rear  hounds  connect  with  the  reach 
by  means  of  a  link  and  pin.  This  link  pushes  up 
through  mortise  holes  in  the  reach  and  is  fastened  with 
a  wooden  pin  or  key  on  top  of  the  reach.  Sometimes 
the  hounds  are  taken  away  and  the  reach  is  fastened 
with  pins  before  and  behind  the  rear  bolster.  This 
reach  hitch  is  not  recommended  except  for  light  road 
work.  These  two  ways  of  attaching  the  rear  sled  neces- 
sitate different  ways  of  fastening  the  rear  bolster  to 
the  sled.  When  the  rear  bolster  is  required  to  do  the 
pulling,  it  is  attached  to  the  sled  by  double  eyebolts 
which  permit  the  necessary  rocking  motion  and  allows 
the  nose  of  the  rear  sled  to  bob  up  and  down  freely. 
This  is  an  advantage  when  a  long  box  bed  is  used,  be- 
cause the  bolster  is  made  to  fit  the  box  closely  and  is  not 
continually  oscillating  and  wearing.  Eye-bolts  pro- 
vide for  this  natural  movement  of  the  sled.  Light 
pleasure  bobs  are  attached  to  the  box  with  eyebolts 
without  bolster  stakes.  The  light  passenger  riding  seat 
box  is  bound  together  with  iron  braces  and  side  irons 
so  it  does  not  need  bolsters  to  hold  the  sides  together. 

Bobsleighs  for  use  in  the  woods  are  hitched  together 
quite  differently.  The  old-fashioned  reach  with  a  staple 


190    .  FARM  MECHANICS 

in  the  rear  bench  of  the  first  sled  and  a  clevis  in  the  end 
of  the  reach  is  the  old-fashioned  rig  for  rough  roads  in 
the  woods.  Such  sleighs  are  fitted  with  bunks  instead 
of  bolsters.  Bunks  are  usually  cut  from  good  hard- 
wood trees,  hewed  out  with  an  axe  and  bored  for  round 


Figure  167.— Bobsleighs,  Showing  Three  Kinds  of  Coupling.  The 
upper  sleighs  are  coupled  on  the  old-fashioned  short  reach  plan  ex- 
cept that  the  reach  is  not  mortised  into  the  roller.  It  is  gained  in 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  and  fastened  by  an  iron  strap  with  a  plate  and 
nuts  on  the  under  side.  The  bobs  in  the  center  show  the  bolster 
reach,  principally  used  for  road  work.  The  bottom  pair  are  coupled 
by  cross  chains  for  short  turning  around  trees  and  stumps  in  the 
woods. 

stakes.  Log  bunks  for  easy  loading  do.  not  project 
beyond  the  raves.  With  this  kind  of  a  rig,  a  farmer  can 
fasten  two  logging  chains  to  the  reach,  carry  the  grab 
hook  ends  out  and  under  and  around  the  log  and  back 
again  over  the  sleighs,  and  then  hitch  the  horses  to  the 
two  chains  and  roll  the  log  up  over  a  couple  of  skids 
and  on  to  the  bunks  without  doing  any  damage  to  the 


FARM  CONVEYANCES  191 

bobsleighs.  Bobsleighs  hitched  together  with  an  old- 
fashioned  reach  and  provided  with  wide  heavy  raves 
will  climb  over  logs,  pitch  down  into  root  holes,  and 
weave  their  way  in  and  out  among  trees  better  than  any 
other  sled  contrivance,  and  they  turn  short  enough  for 
such  roads.  The  shortest  turning  rig,  however,  is  the 
cross  chain  reach  shown  in  Figure  167. 

MAKING  A  FARM  CART 

A  two-wheeled  cart  large  enough  to  carry  a  barrel  of 
cider  is  a  great  convenience  on  a  farm.  The  front 
wheels  of  a  buggy  are  about  the  right  size  and  usually 
are  strong  enough  for  cart  purposes.  A  one-inch  iron 
axle  will  be  stiff  enough  if  it  is  reinforced  at  the  square 
bends.  The  axle  is  bent  down  near  the  hubs  at  right 
angles  and  carried  across  to  support  the  floor  of  the 
cart  box  about  one  foot  from  the  ground.  The  distance 
from  the  ground  should  be  just  sufficient  so  that  when 
the  cart  is  tipped  back  the  hind  end  will  rest  on  the 
ground  with  the  bottom  boards  at  an  easy  slant  to  roll 
a  barrel  or  milk  can  into  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Under 
the  back  end  of  the  cart  platform  is  a  good,  stout  bar  of 
hardwood  framed  into  the  sidepieces.  All  of  the  wood- 
work about  the  cart  is  well  braced  with  iron.  The  floor 
of  the  cart  is  better  when  made  of  narrow  matched 
hardwood  flooring  about  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick 
fastened  with  bolts.  It  should  be  well  supported  by 
cross  pieces  underneath.  In  fact  the  principal  part  of 
the  box  is  the  underneath  part  of  the  frame. 

Sidepieces  of  the  box  are  wide  and  are  bolted  to  the 
vertical  parts  of  the  axle  and  braced  in  different  direc- 
tions to  keep  the  frame  solid,  square  and  firm.  The 
sides  of  the  box  are  permanently  fastened  but  both 
tailboard  and  front  board  are  held  in  place  by  cleats 


192  FARM  MECHANICS 

and  rods  and  are  removable  so  that  long  scantling  or 
lumber  may  be  carried  on  the  cart  bottom.  The  ends 
of  the  box  may  be  quickly  put  in  place  again  when  it 
is  necessary  to  use  them. 

To  hold  a  cart  box  together,  four  rods  are  necessary, 
two  across  the  front  and  two  behind.  They  are  made 
like  tailboard  rods  in  wagon  boxes.  There  is  always 
some  kind  of  tongue  or  handle  bar  in  front  of  the  farm 
cart  conveniently  arranged  for  either  pulling  or  push- 


Figure  168. — Farm  Cart.  The  axle  need  not  be  heavier  than  %", 
The  hind  axle  of  a  light  buggy  works  the  best.  It  is  bent  down  and 
spliced  and  welded  under  the  box.  The  cart  should  be  made  narrow 
to  prevent  overloading.  The  box  should  be  low  enough  to  rest  the 
back  end  on  the  ground  at  an  angle  of  about  35°  for  easy  loading. 

ing.  If  a  breast  bar  is  used  it  handles  better  when  sup- 
ported by  two  curved  projecting  shafts  or  pieces  of 
bent  wood,  preferably  the  bent  up  extended  ends  of  the 
bedpieces.  The  handle  bar  should  be  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground. 

COLT-BREAKING  SULKY 

A  pair  of  shafts  that  look  a  good  deal  too  long,  an 
axle,  two  wheels  and  a  whiffletree  are  the  principal 
parts  of  a  colt-breaking  sulky.  The  shafts  are  so  long 
that  a  colt  can  kick  his  best  without  reaching  anything 
behind.  The  principal  danger  is  that  he  may  come 
down  with  one  hind  leg  over  the  shaft.  It  is  a  question 
with  horsemen  whether  it  is  better  to  first  start  a  colt 


FARM  CONVEYANCES 


193 


alongside  of  an  old,  steady  horse.  But  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  in  no  case  should  a  colt  be  made  fast  in 
such  a  way  that  he  could  kick  himself  loose.  Different 
farmers  have  different  ideas  in  regard  to  training  colts, 
but  these  breaking  carts  with  extra  long  shafts  are  very 
much  used  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  The  shafts 
are  heavy  enough  so  that  the  colts  may  be  tied  down  to 
make  kicking  impossible.  A  rope  or  heavy  strap  reach- 


Figure  169. — Colt-Breaking  Sulky.  The  axle  and  hind  wheels  of 
a  light  wagon,  two  strong  straight-grained  shafts  about  4  feet  too 
long,  a  whiffletree  and  a  spring  seat  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  colt 
breaking  sulky.  The  shafts  and  seat  are  thoroughly  well  bolted  and 
clipped  to  the  axle  and  braced  against  all  possible  maneuvers  of  the 
colt.  The  traces  are  made  so  long  that  the  colt  cannot  reach  any- 
thing to  kick,  and  he  is  prevented  from  kicking  by  a  strap  reaching 
from  one  shaft  up  over  his  hips  and  down  to  the  other  shaft.  In 
this  rig  the  colt  is  compelled  to  go  ahead  because  he  cannot  turn 
around.  The  axle  should  be  longer  than  standard  to  prevent  up- 
setting when  the  colt  turns  a  corner  at  high  speed. 

ing  from  one  shaft  to  the  other  over  the  coitus  hips  will 
keep  its  hind  feet  pretty  close  to  the  ground.  Any  rig 
used  in  connection  with  a  colt  should  be  strong  enough 
to  withstand  any  strain  that  the  colt  may  decide  to  put 
upon  it.  If  the  colt  breaks  something  or  breaks  loose, 
it  takes  him  a  long  time  to  forget  the  scare.  Farm  boys 
make  these  breaking  carts  by  using  wheels  and  hind 
axles  of  a  worn-out  buggy.  This  is  well  enough  if  the 
wheels  are  strong  and  shafts  thoroughly  bolted  and 
braced.  It  is  easy  to  make  a  mistake  with  a  colt.  To 
prevent  accidents  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  harness 
and  wagon  amply  strong. 


CHAPTEE  VIII 

MISCELLANEOUS  FAEM  CONVENIENCES 

FARM  OFFICE 

Business  farming  requires  an  office.    Business  callers 
feel  sensitive  about  talking  farm  or  live-stock  affairs 


Figure  170. — Perspective  View  of  Two-Story  Corn  Crib.    The  side  of 
the  building  is  cut  away  to  show  the  elevating  machinery. 

before  several  members  of  the  family.  But  they  are 
quite  at  ease  when  alone  with  the  farmer  in  his  office. 
A  farm  office  may  be  small  but  it  should  contain  a 

194 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


195 


desk  or  table,  two  or  three  chairs,  book  shelves  for 
books,  drawers  for  government  bulletins  and  a  cabinet 
to  hold  glassware  and  chemicals  for  making  soil  tests 


Figure  171. — Floor  Plans  of  Two-Story  Corn  Crib.  The  first 
floor  shows  the  driveway  with  corn  cribs  at  the  sides  and  the 
second  floor  plan  shows  the  grain  bins  over  the  center  driveway, 
with  location  of  the  downspouts,  stairway,  etc. 


and  a  good  magnifying  glass  for  examining  seeds  be- 
fore planting.  A  good  glass  is  also  valuable  in  tracing 
the  destructive  work  of  many  kinds  of  insect  pests. 


19G 


FARM  MECHANICS 


The  office  is  the  proper  place  for  making  germina- 
tion tests  of  various  farm  seeds.  Seventy  degrees  of 
heat  is  necessary  for  the  best  results  in  seed  testing. 
For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  comfort  while  working, 
the  heating  problem  should  receive  its  share  of  atten- 


232  Lineal 
Feet  of  Wall 


6.G.B 


-53-5" 
2l49fo  Lin. 
Feet  of  Wall. 


l902/foLi(i. 
Feet  of  Wolf. 


Figure  172. — Economy  of  Round  Barn.  The  diagrams  show  that 
the  popular  36'x80'  cow  stable  and  the  commonest  size  of  round 
barn  have  about  the  same  capacity.  Each  barn  will  stable  forty 
cows,  but  the  round  barn  has  room  for  a  silo  in  the  center.  Both 
barns  have  feed  overhead  in  the  shape  of  hay  and  straw,  but  the 
round  feed  room  saves  steps. 


Figure  173. — Concrete  Farm  Scale  Base  and  Pit. 


tion.  Many  times  it  so  happens  that  a  farmer  has  a 
few  minutes  just  before  mealtime  that  he  could  devote 
to  office  work  if  the  room  be  warm  enough. 

Neatly  printed  letter-heads  and  envelopes  are  im- 
portant. The  sheets  of  paper  should  be  eight 'and  a 
half  by  eleven  inches  in  size,  pure  white  and  of  good 
quality.     The  printing  should  be  plain  black  and  of 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


197 


RIDGE  BOARD  SHOULD    IXTEHB    BACK  INTO 
3ARH8rE£T.        £'^^- rafters  ) 


S2'xt"  COLLAR  BEAM 


BARM  WALL 


Figure  174, — ^Top  View  of  the  Hay-Track  Roof  Extension,  showing 
the  ridgeboard  and  supporting  jack-rafters. 


3-0'     .. -  a'-o" 


WAY-TR, 


BARGE 
BOARD  U 


Figure  175. — Side  view  showing  plan  for  building  a  Hayfork  Hood 
to  project  from  peak  of  a  storage  barn.  The  jack-rafters  form  a 
brace  to  support  the  end  of  the  hay-track  beam. 


198 


FARM  MECHANICS 


round  medium-sized  letters  that  may  be  easily  read. 
Fancy  lettering  and  flourishes  are  out  of  place  on  busi- 
ness stationery. 


Detail  of 
Door 
Latching 
Hechanism 


Figure  176. — Slaughter  House.  The  house  should  be  twelve  feet 
wide.  It  may  be  any  length  to  provide  storage,  but  12x12  makes  a 
good  beef  skinning  floor.  The  windlass  shaft  should  be  ten  feet 
above  the  floor,  which  requires  twelve-foot  studding.  The  wheel  is 
eight  feet  in  diameter  and  the  winding  drum  is  about  ten  inches. 
The  animal  is  killed  on  the  incline  outside  of  the  building  and  it  lies 
limp  against  the  revolving  door.  The  door  catch  is  sprung  back  and 
the  carcass  rolls  down  onto  the  concrete  skinning  floor. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


199 


Halftone  illustration  of  farm  animals  or  buildings 
are  better  used  on  separate  advertising  sheets  that  may 
be  folded  in  with  the  letters  when  wanted. 


Figure  177. — ^Rule  of  Six,  Eight  and  Ten.  Diagram  showing  how 
to  stake  the  foundation  of  a  farm  building  so  the  excavation  can  be 
made  clear  out  to  the  corners  without  undermining  the  stakes. 


Figure  178.- 


-Roof  Truss  built  strong  enough  to  support  the  roof  of  a 
farm  garage  without  center  posts. 


200 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Typewriters  are  so  common  that  a  hand-written  let- 
ter is  seldom  seen  among  business  correspondence.  A 
busy  farmer  is  not  likely  to  acquire  much  speed  with  a 
typewriter,  but  his  son  or  daughter  may.     One  great 


Figure  179. — Design  of  Roof  Truss  Intended  to  Span  a  Farm  Garage. 


Figure  180. — ^Roof  Pitches,    Mow  capacity  of  the  different  roof 
pitches  is  given  above  the  plates  in  figures. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


201 


advantage  is  the  making  of  carbon  copies.  Every  let- 
ter received  is  then  filed  in  a  letter  case  in  alphabetical 
order  and  a  carbon  copy  of  each  answer  is  pinned  to  it 
for  future  reference. 

The  cost  of  furnishing  a  farm  ofiSce  will  depend  upon 
the  inclinations  of  the  man.    A  cheap  kitchen  table 


Figure  181. — Double  Corn  Crib.  Two  cribs  may  be  roofed  this 
way  as  cheaply  as  to  roof  the  two  cribs  separately.  A  storeroom  is 
provided  overhead  and  the  bracing  prevents  the  cribs  from  sagging. 

may  be  used  instead  of  an  expensive  mahogany  desk. 
A  new  typewriter  costs  from  fifty  to  ninety  dollars,  but 
a  rebuilt  machine  that  will  do  good  work  may  be  ob- 
tained for  twenty. 

A  useful  magnifying  glass  with  legs  may  be  bought 
for  a  dollar  or  two.  Or  considerable  money  may  be  in- 
vested in  a  high-powered  microscope. 


SPEED  INDICATOR 

The  speed  requirements  of  machines  are  given  by 
the  manufacturers.    It  is  up  to  the  farmer  to  determine 


202 


FARM  MECHANICS 


the  size  of  pulleys  and  the  speed  of  intermediate  shafts 
between  his  engine  and  the  machine  to  be  driven.  A 
speed  indicator  is  held  against  the  end  of  a  shaft  at 
the  center.    The  indicator  pin  then  revolves  with  the 


Figure  182. — Speed  Timers.  Two  styles.  The  point  is  held  against 
the  center  of  the  shaft  to  be  tested.  The  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute  is  shown  in  figures  on  the  face  of  the  dial.  The  indicator 
is  timed  to  the  second  hand  of  a  watch. 

shaft  and  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  are 
counted  by  timing  the  pointer  on  the  dial  with  the  sec- 
ond hand  of  a  watch. 


^ 


Figure  183. — Building  Bracket.  Made  of  2x4  pieces  put  together 
at  right  angles  with  diagonal  braces.  The  supporting  leg  fits  be- 
tween the  four  diagonal  braces. 


SOIL  TOOLS 

Soil  moisture  often  is  the  limiting  factor  in  crop 
raising.    Soil  moisture  may  be  measured  by  analysis. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


203 


Figure  184. — Diagram  showing  how  to  cut  a  plank  on  a  band- 
saw  to  form  a  curved  rafter.  The  two  pieces  of  the  plank  are  spiked 
together  as  shown  in  the  lower  drawing.  This  makes  a  curved  rafter 
without  waste  of  material. 


Figure  185. — Breeding  Crate  for  Hogs.     The  illustration  shows  the 
manner  of  construction. 


204 


FARM  MECHANICS 


The  first  step  is  to  obtain  samples  at  different  depths. 
This  is  done  accurately  and  quickly  with  a  good  soil 
auger.     Other  paraphernalia  is  required  to  make  a 


Figure  186. — Soil  Auger.  Scientific  farming  demands  that  soils 
shall  be  tested  for  moisture.  A  long  handled  auger  is  used  to  bring 
samples  of  soil  to  the  surface.  The  samples  are  weighed,  the  water 
evaporated  and  the  soil  reweighed  to  determine  the  amount  of 
moisture. 


Figure  187. — Post  Hole  Diggers.  Two  patterns  of  the  same  kind 
of  digger  are  shown.  The  first  has  iron  handles,  the  lower  has 
wooden  handles. 


Figure  188. — Hoes  and  Weeders.  The  hang  of  a  hoe  affects  its 
working.  The  upper  hoe  shows  about  the  easiest  working  angle 
between  the  blade  and  the  handle.  The  difference  between  a  hoe  and 
a  weeder  is  that  the  hoe  is  intended  to  strike  into  the  ground  to 
loosen  the  soil,  while  the  blade  of  the  weeder  is  intended  to  work 
parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  cut  young  weeds. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


205 


careful  analysis  of  the  sample,  but  a  farmer  of  experi- 
ence will  make  a  mud  ball  and  form  a  very  good  esti- 
mate of  the  amount  of  water  in  it. 


Figure  189.— M|inure  Hook  and  Potato  Diggers. 


g-^HT 


Figure  190. — Spud.  Certain  vegetables  are  gron^n  for  crop  and 
for  seed.  The  green  plants  are  thinned  with  a  spud  for  sale,  leaving 
the  best  to  ripen  for  seed.  It  is  also  used  to  dig  tough  weeds,  espe- 
cially those  having  tap  roots. 


Figure  191. —  (1)  Corn  Cutting  Knife.     (2)  Asparagus  Knife. 


FENCE-MAKING  TOOLS 


Sliding  Field  Gate. — Each  farm  field  should  have 
a  gate,  not  necessarily  expensive,  but  it  should  be 
reasonably  convenient.     Farm  field  gates  should  be 


206 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Figure  192. — .(1)  Plumb-Bob  and  Plumb-Line.  The  line  is  paid 
out  about  6  feet  from  the  spool  and  given  a  half  hitch.  It  may  then 
be  hung  over  the  wire  and  the  spool  will  balance  the  bob.  (2)  Bipod. 
The  legs  of  a  fence  bipod  are  cut  6  feet  long.  The  bolt  is  put 
through  6  inches  from  the  top  ends.  By  the  aid  of  the  plummet  the 
upl)er  wire  is  strung  plumb  over  the  barb-wire  in  the  furrow  and 
4'  6"  above  grade.  The  lower  parts  of  the  posts  are  set  against  the  " 
barb-wire  and  the  upper  faces  of  the  posts  at  the  top  are  set  even 
with  the  upper  wire.  This  plan  not  only  places  the  posts  in  line, 
both  at  the  top  and  bottom,  but  it  regulates  the  height. 


^ 


~^     3" 

-^g\     -Q   ROUND  STEEL 


SPlKt  FOU  TWISTING   BRACE  WIRES 


-7-0 


SCOOP  FOR,  REMOVING  STONES 


4-0" 


-?cx::ta&on  steteu 


CROW-5AR. 


Figure  193. — Fence  Tools.  The  upper  tool  is  a  round  steel  pin  to 
twist  heavy  brace  wires.  The  scoop  is  for  working  stones  out  of 
post-holes. '  The  steel  crowbar  is  for  working  around  the  stones  to 
loosen  them. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  207 

made  sixteen  feet  long,  which  will  allow  for  a  clear 
opening  about  fourteen  feet  wide.  The  cheapest  way 
to  make  a  good  farm  gate  is  to  use  a  10-inch  board  for 
the  bottom,  8-inch  for  the  board  next  to  the  bottom  and 
three  6-inch  boards  above  that.  The  space  between 
the  bottom  board  and  next  board  is  two  inches.  This 
narrow  space  prevents  hogs  from  lifting  the  gate  with 
their  noses.  The  spaces  widen  toward  the  top,  so  that 
the  gate  when  finished  is  five  feet  high.  If  colts  run  the 
fields  then  a  bar  is  needed  along  the  top  of  the  gate. 
Six  cross  pieces  1  inch  by  6  inches  are  used  to  hold 


Figure  194. — Fence  Pliers.     This  is  a  heavy  fence  tool  made  to  puU 
fence  staples  and  to  stretch,  cut  and  splice  wire. 


the  gate  together.  These  cross  pieces  are  bolted  through 
at  each  intersection.  Also  a  slanting  brace  is  used  on 
the  front  half  of  the  gate  to  keep  it  from  racking  and 
this  brace  is  put  on  with  bolts.  Two  posts  are  set  at 
each  end  of  the  gate.  The  front  posts  hold  the  front 
end  of  the  gate  between  them,  and  the  rear  posts  the 
same.  There  is  a  cross  piece  which  reaches  from  one 
of  the  rear  posts  to  the  other  to  slide  the  gate  and 
hold  it  off  the  ground.  A  similar  cross  piece  holds  the 
front  end  of  the  gate  up  from  the  ground.  Sometimes 
a  swivel  roller  is  attached  to  the  rear  cross  piece  to  roll 
the  gate  if  it  is  to  be  used  a  good  deal.  A  plain,  simple 
sliding  gate  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  fields  some  dis- 
tance from  the  barn. 


208  FARM  MECHANICS 

CORN  SHOCK  HORSE 

A  convenient  corn  shocking  horse  is  made  with  a 
pole  cut  from  a  straight  tree.  The  pole  is  about  six 
inches  through  at  the  butt  and  tapers  to  a  small  end. 
About  twenty  feet  is  a  good  length.  There  are  two  legs 
which  hold  the  large  end  of  the  pole  up  about  40''  from 
the  ground.  These  legs  are  well  spread  apart  at  the 
bottom.  Two  feet  back  from  the  legs  is  a  horizontal 
hole  about  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter  to 
hold  the  crossbar.    This  crossbar  may  be  an  old  broom 


Figure  195. — Corn  Horse.  When  corn  is  cut  by  hand  there  is  no 
better  shocking  device  than  the  old-style  corn  horse.  It  is  almost  as 
handy  when  setting  up  the  corn  sheaves  from  the  corn  binder. 

handle.  The  pole  and  the  crossbar  mark  the  four  divi- 
sions of  a  corn  shock.  Corn  is  cut  and  stood  up  in  each 
corner,  usually  nine  hills  in  a  corner,  giving  thirty-six 
hills  to  a  shock.  Corn  planted  in  rows  is  counted  up  to 
make  about  the  same  amount  of  corn  to  the  shock.  Of 
course  a  heavy  or  light  crop  must  determine  the  num- 
ber of  rows  or  hills.  When  enough  corn  is  cut  for  a 
shock  it  is  tied  with  two  bands,  the  crossbar  is  pulled 
out  and  the  corn  horse  is  dragged  along  to  the  next 
stand. 

HUSKING-PIN 

Hand  buskers  for  dividing  the  cornhusks  at  the  tips 
of  the  ears  are  made  of  wood,  bone  or  steel.  Wooden 
husking-pins  are  made  of  ironwood,  eucalyptus,  second 
growth  hickory,  or  some  other  tough  hardwood.    The 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


209 


Figure   196. — Brick  Trowel. 


14 ID 


Figure  197. — Plastering  Trowel. 


h20  concrete^ 


rt<imt>ed  onders  or  araYt) 

Figure  198. — Concrete  Hog  Wallow,  showing  draii^  pipe. 


Figure  199. — Concrete  Center  Alley  for  Hog  House.  The  upper 
illustration  represents  the  wooden  template  used  to  form  the  center 
of  the  hog  house  floor. 


210 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Str^w  Top-^ 


Concrete  PoerfJiS^^^^^^ 
Wire  Mesh  Filled  with  STrflW^ 


Figure  200. — Sanitary  Pig-Pen.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  far- 
rowing houses  is  constructed  of  concrete  posts  6"  square  and  6" 
square  mesh  hog  fencing  and  straw.  The  posts  are  set  to  make  far- 
rowing pens  8'  wide  and  16'  deep  from  front  to  back.  Woven  wire 
is  stretched  and  fastened  to  both  sides  of  the  posts  at  the  sides  and 
back  of  each  pen.  Straw  is  stuffed  in  between  the  two  wire  nets, 
thus  making  partitions  of  straw  6"  thick  and  42"  high.  Fence  wire 
is  stretched  over  the  top  and  straw  piled  on  deep  enough  to  shed 
rain.  The  front  of  the  pens  face  the  south  and  are  closed  by  wooden 
gates.  In  the  spring  the  pigs  are  turned  out  on  pasture,  the  straw 
roof  is, hauled  to  the  fields  for  manure  and  the  straw  partitions 
burned  out.  The  sun  shines  into  the  skeleton  pens  all  summer  so 
that  all  mischievous  bacteria  are  killed  and  the  hog-lice  are  burned 
or  starved.  The  next  fall  concrete  floors  may  be  laid  in  the  pens, 
the  partitions  restuffed  with  straw  and  covered  with  another  straw 
roof.  In  a  colder  climate  I  would  cover  the  whole  top  with  a  straw 
roof.  Sufficient  ventilation  would  work  through  the  straw  partitions 
and  the  front  gate.  In  very  cold  weather  add  a  thin  layer  of  straw 
to  the  gate. 


Figure  201. — Concrete  Wall  Mold.  Wooden  molds  for  shaping  a 
concrete  wall  may  be  made  as  shown.  If  the  "wall  is  to  be  low — 2' 
or  less — the  mold  will  stay  in  place  without  bolting  or  wiring  the 
sides  together.  The  form  is  made  level  by  first  leveling  the  2"x6" 
stringers  that  support  the  form. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


211 


pin  is  about  four  inches  long,  five-eighths  of  an  inch 
thick  and  it  is  shaped  like  a  lead-pencil  with  a  rather 
long  point.  A  recessed  girdle  is  cut  around  the  barrel 
of  the  pin  and  a  leather  finger  ring  fits  into  and  around 
this  girdle.    Generally  the  leather  ring  fits  the  larger 


Figure  202. — Husking-Pin.    The  leather  finger  ring  is  looped  into  the 
recess  in  the  wooden  pin. 


Figure  203. — Harness  Punch.     The  hollow  punch  points  are  of 
different  sizes. 


Figure  204. — Belt  Punch.  Two  or  three  sizes  should  be  kept  in  the 
tool  box.  Belt  holes  should  be  small  to  hold  the  lace  tight.  The 
smooth  running  of  belts  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  lacing.  Holes 
punch  better  against  the  end  of  a  hickory  block  or  other  fine  grained 
hardwood. 


finger  to  hold  the  pin  in  the  right  position  while  per- 
mitting it  to  turn  to  wear  the  point  all  around  alike. 
Bone  husking-pins  are  generally  flat  with  a  hole 
through  the  center  to  hold  the  leather  finger  ring.  Steel 
husking-pins  are  shaped  differently  and  have  teeth  to 
catch  and  tear  the  husks  apart. 


212 


FARM  MECHANICS 


PAINT  BRUSHES 

Paint  brushes  may  be  left  in  the  paint  for  a  year 
without  apparent  injury.  The  paint  should  be  deep 
enough  to  nearly  bury  the  bristles.  Pour  a  little  boiled 
linseed  oil  over  the  top  to  form  a  skin  to  keep  the  air 
out.  It  is  cheaper  to  buy  a  new  brush  than  to  clean  the 
paint  out  of  one  that  has  been  used. 


ttB.     Clove  Hitch 


Lflshjng        Running  Knot 


Figure  205. — 'Knots.    The  simple  principles  of  knot  tying  as 
practiced  on  farms  are  here  represented. 


Figure  206. — Sheepshank,  two  half  hitches  in  a  rope  to  take  up 
slack.  The  rope  may  be  folded  upon  itself  as  many  times  as  neces- 
sary. 


Figure  207. — ^Marline  Spike.    Used  for  splicing  ropes,  tying  rose 
knots,  etc. 


FRUIT  PICKING 


Apples  are  handled  as  carefully  as  eggs  by  men 
who  understand  the  business  of  getting  high  prices. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  213 

Picking  boxes  for  apples  have  bothered  orchard  men 
more  than  any  other  part  of  the  business.  It  is  so 
difficult  to  get  help  to  handle  apples  without  bruising 
that  many  inventions  have  been  tried  to  lessen  the  dam- 
age. In  western  New  York  a  tray  with  vertical  ends 
and  slanting  sides  has  been  adopted  by  grape  growers 
as  the  most  convenient  tray  for  grapes.  Apple  growers 
are  adopting  the  same  tray.     It  is  made  of  three- 


Figure  208. — Fruit-Picking  Tray.  It  is  used  for  picking  grapes 
and  other  fruits.  The  California  lug  box  has  vertical  sides  and  is 
the  same  size  top  and  bottom.  Otherwise  the  construction  is 
similar. 

eighths-inch  lumber  cut  30  inches  long  for  the  sides, 
using  two  strips  for  each  side.  The  bottom  is  30  inches 
long  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  made  in  one 
piece.  The  ends  are  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  cut 
to  a  bevel  so  the  top  edge  of  the  end  piece  is  fourteen 
inches  long  and  the  bottom  edge  is  ten  inches  long.  The 
depth  of  the  end  piece  is  eight  inches.  Hand  cleats 
are  nailed  on  the  outsides  of  the  end  pieces  so  as  to  pro- 
ject one-half  inch  above  the  top.  These  cleats  not  only 
serve  to  lift  and  carry  the  trays,  but  when  they  are 
loaded  on  a  wagon  the  bottoms  fit  in  between  the  cleats 
to  hold  them  from  slipping  endways.     In  piling  these 


214 


FARM  MECHANICS 


picking  boxes  empty,  one  end  is  slipped  outward  over 
the  cleat  until  the  other  end  drops  down.  This  permits 
half  nesting  when  the  boxes  are  piled  up  for  storage  or 
when  loaded  ou  wagons  to  move  to  the  orchard. 


Figure  209. — Fruit  Thinning  Nippers.  Three  styles  of  apple-stem 
cutters  are  shown.  They  are  also  used  for  picking  grapes  and 
other  fruits. 


Apples  are  picked  into  the  trays  from  the  trees.  The 
trays  are  loaded  on  to  wagons  or  stone-boats  and 
hauled  to  the  packing  shed,  where  the  apples  are  rolled 
out  gently  over  the  sloping  sides  of  the  crates  on  to  the 
cushioned  bottom  of  the  sorting  table.    Orchard  men 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  215 

should  have  crates  enough  to  keep  the  pickers  busy- 
without  emptying  until  they  are  hauled  to  the  packing 
shed.  The  use  of  such  trays  or  crates  save  handling 
the  apples  over  several  times.  The  less  apples  are 
handled  the  fewer  bruises  are  made. 


Figure  210. — Apple  Picking  Ladder.  When  apples  are  picked  and 
placed  in  bushel  trays  a  ladder  on  wheels  with  shelves  is  convenient 
for  holding  the  trays. 

In  California  similar  trays  are  used,  but  they  have 
straight  sides  and  are  called  lug  boxes.  Eastern  fruit 
men  prefer  the  sloping  sides  because  they  may  be 
emptied  easily,  quickly  and  gently. 


FRUIT  PICKING  LADDERS 

Commercial  orchards  are  pruned  to  keep  the  bear- 
ing fruit  spurs  as  near  the  ground  as  possible,  so  that 


216  FARM  MECHANICS 

ladders  used  at  picking  time  are  not  so  long  as  they 
used  to  be. 

The  illustration  shows  one  of. the  most  convenient 
picking  ladders.  It  is  a  double  ladder  with  shelves  to 
hold  picking  trays  supported  by  two  wheels  and  two 
legs.    The  wheels  which  are  used  to  support  one  side 


Figure  211. — Stepladder  and  Apple-Picking  Bag.  This  ladder  has 
only  three  feet,  but  the  bottom  of  the  ladder  is  made  wide  to  pre- 
vent upsetting.  This  bag  is  useful  when  picking  scattering  apples 
on  the  outer  or  upper  branches.  Picking  bags  carelessly  used  are  the 
cause  of  many  bruised  apples. 


Figure  212. — Tree  Pruners.  The  best  made  pruners  are  the 
cheapest.  This  long  handled  pruner  is  made  of  fine  tool  steel  from 
the  cutting  parts  clear  to  the  outer  ends  of  the  wooden  handles.  A 
positive  stop  prevents  the  handles  from  coming  together.  Small 
one-hand  pruning  nippers  are  made  for  clean  cutting.  The  blades 
of  both  pruners  should  work  towards  the  tree  trunk  so  the  hook  will 
mash  the  bark  on  the  discarded  portion  of  the  limb. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  217 

of  the  frame  are  usually  old  buggy  wheels.  A  hind 
axle  together  with  the  wheels  works  about  right.  The 
ladder  frame  is  about  eight  feet  high  with  ladder  steps 
going  up  from  each  side.  These  steps  also  form  the 
support  for  the  shelves.  Picking  trays  or  boxes  are 
placed  on  the  shelves,  so  the  latter  will  hold  eight  or 
ten  bushels  of  apples,  and  may  be  wheeled  directly  to 
the  packing  shed  if  the  distance  is  not  too  great. 

Step-ladders  from  six  to  ten  feet  long  are  more  con- 
venient to  get  up  into  the  middle  of  the  tree  than  al- 
most any  other  kind  of  ladder.     Commercial  apple 


Figure  213. — Shears.  The  first  pair  is  used  for  sheep  shearing. 
The  second  is  intended  for  cutting  grass  around  the  edges  of  walks 
and  flower  beds. 

trees  have  open  tops  to  admit  sunshine.  For  this  rea- 
son, straight  ladders  are  not  much  used.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  have  ladders  built  so  they  will  support  them- 
selves. Sometimes  only  one  leg  is  used  in  front  of  a 
step-ladder  and  sometimes  ladders  are  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom and  taper  to  a  point  at  the  top.  The  kind  of  lad- 
der to  use  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  trees  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  pruned.  Usually  it 
is  better  to  have  several  kinds  of  ladders  of  different 
sizes  and  lengths.  Pickers  then  have  no  occasion  to 
wait  for  each  other. 

FEEDING  RACKS 

Special  racks  for  the  feeding  of  alfalfa  hay  to  hogs 
are  built  with  slatted  sides  hinged  at  the  top  so  they 
will  swing  in  when  the  hogs  crowd  their  noses  through 


218 


FARM  MECHANICS 


to  get  the  hay.  This  movement  drops  the  hay  down 
within  reach.  Alfalfa  hay  is  especially  valuable  as  a 
winter  feed  for  breeding  stock.    Sows  may  be  wintered 


Figure  214. — Horse  Feeding  Rack.  This  is  a  barnyard  hay  feeder 
for  horses  and  colts.  The  diagonal  boarding  braces  each  corner  post 
and  leaves  large  openings  at  the  sides.  Horses  shy  at  small  hay 
holes.  The  top  boards  and  the  top  rail  are  2x4s  for  strength.  The 
bottom  is  floored  to  save  the  chaff. 


Figure  215. — Corner  Post  Detail  of  Horse  Feeding  Rack.  A  2x6 
is  spiked  into  the  edge  of  a  2x4,  making  a  corner  post  6"  across. 
The  side  boarding  is  cut  even  with  the  corner  of  the  post  and  the 
open  corner  is  filled  with  a  two-inch  quarter-round  as  shown. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


219 


on  alfalfa  with  one  ear  of  corn  a  day  and  come  out  in 
the  spring  in  fit  condition  to  suckle  a  fine  litter  of  pigs. 
Alfalfa  is  a  strong  protein  feed.     It  furnishes  the 


Figure  216. — Automatic  Hog  Feeder.  The  little  building  is  8 '  xl2 ' 
on  the  ground  and  it  is  10'  high  to  the  plates.  The  crushed  grain 
is  shoveled  in  from  behind  and  it  feeds  down  hopper  fashion  as  fast 
as  the  hogs  eat  it.  The  floor  is  made  of  matched  lumber.  It  should 
stand  on  a  dry  concrete  floor. 


Figure  217. — Sheep  Feeding  Rack.  The  hay  bottom  and  grain 
trough  sides  slope  together  at  45°  angles.  The  boarding  is  made 
tight  to  hold  chaff  and  grain  from  wasting. 

muscle-forming  substances  necessary  for  the  young 
litter  by  causing  a  copious  flow  of  milk.  One  ear  of 
corn  a  day  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  sow  in  good  condi- 


220 


FARM  MECHANICS 


tion  without  laying  on  too  much  fat.  When  shoats 
are  fed  in  the  winter  for  fattening,  alfalfa  hay  helps 
them  to  grow.  In  connection  with  grain  it  increases 
the  weight  rapidly  without  adding  a  great  deal  of  ex- 
pense to  the  ration.  Alfalfa  in  every  instance  is  in- 
tended as  a  roughage,  as  an  appetizer  and  as  a  protein 
feed.    Fat  must  be  added  by  the  use  of  corn,  kaffir  corn. 


Figure  218. — Rack  Base  and  Sides.  The  2x4s  are  halved  at  the 
ends  and  put  together  at  right  angles.  These  frames  are  placed  3' 
apart  and  covered  with  matched  flooring.  Light  braces  should  be 
nailed  across  these  frames  a  few  inches  up  from  the  ground.  The 
1x4  pickets  are  placed  7"  apart  in  the  clear,  so  the  sheep  can  get 
their  heads  through  to  feed.  These  picketed  frames  are  bolted  to 
the  base  and  framed  around  the  top.  If  the  rack  is  more  than  9' 
long  there  should  be  a  center  tie  or  partition.  Twelve  feet  is  a  good 
length  to  make  the  racks. 

Canada  peas,  barley  or  other  grains.  Alfalfa  hay  is 
intended  to  take  the  place  of  summer  pasture  in  winter 
more  than  as  a  fattening  ration. 


SPLIT-LOG  ROAD  DRAG 

The  only  low  cost  road  grader  of  value  is  the  split- 
log  road  drag.  It  should  be  exactly  what  the  name  im- 
plies. It  should  be  made  from  a  light  log  about  eight 
inches  in  diameter  split  through  the  middle  with  a  saw. 
Plenty  of  road  drags  are  made  of  timbers  instead  of 
split  logs,  but  the  real  principle  is  lost  because  such 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


221 


drags  are  too  heavy  and  clumsy.  They  cannot  be 
quickly  adjusted  to  the  varying  road  conditions  met 
with  while  in  use. 


Figure  219. — Hog  Trough.  In  a  winter  hog  house  the  feed  trough 
is  placed  next  to  the  alley  or  passageway.  A  cement  trough  is  best. 
A  drop  gate  is  hinged  over  the  trough  so  it  can  be  swung  in  while 
putting  feed  in  the  trough.  The  same  gate  is  opened  up  level  to 
admit  hogs  to  the  pen. 


The  illustration  shows  the  right  way  of  making  a 
road  drag,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  drawn  along 
at  an  angle  to  the  roadway  so  as  to  move  the  earth 
from  the  sides  towards  the  center,  but  illustrations  are 


222 


FARM  MECHANICS 


Figure  220. — Reinforced  Hog  Trougii.  The  section  of  hog  trough 
to  the  left  is  reinforced  with  chicken  wire,  one-inch  mesh.  The 
trough  to  the  right  is  reinforced  with  seven  %"  rods — three  in  the 
bottom  and  two  in  each  side. 


Xio\}^ 


Figure  221. — Double  Poultry  Feeding  Trough  with  Partition  in  the 
Center. 


Figure  222. — 'Poultry  Feeder  with  Metal  or  Crockery  Receptacle. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  223 

useless  for  showing  how  to  operate  them  to  do  good 
work.  The  eccentricities  of  a  split-log  road  drag  may 
be  learned  in  one  lesson  by  riding  it  over  a  mile  or  two 
of  country  road  shortly  after  the  frost  has  left  the 
ground  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  front  half  of  the  road  drag  presents  the  flat 
side  of  the  split  log  to  the  work  of  shaving  off  the  lumps 
while  the  other  half  log  levels  and  smooths  and  pud- 


Figure  223. — Split-Log  Road  Drag.  The  front  edge  is  shod  with 
a  steel  plate  to  do  the  cutting  and  the  round  side  of  the  rear  log 
grinds  the  loosened  earth  fine  and  presses  it  into  the  wagon  tracks 
and  water  holes. 


dies  the  loosened  moist  earth  by  means  of  the  rounded 
side.  Puddling  makes  earth  waterproof.  The  front, 
or  cutting  edge,  is  faced  with  steel.  The  ridges  and 
humps  are  cut  and  shoved  straight  ahead  or  to  one 
side  to  fill  holes  and  ruts.  This  is  done  by  the  driver, 
who  shifts  his  weight  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and 
from  front  to  back  of  his  standing  platform  to  dis- 
tribute the  earth  to  the  best  advantage.  The  rounded 
side  of  the  rear  half  log  presses  the  soft  earth  into  place 
and  leaves  the  surface  smooth. 

Unfortunately,  the  habit  of  using  narrow  tired  wag- 
ons on  country  roads  has  become  almost  universal  in 


224  FARM  MECHANICS 

the  United  States.  To  add  to  their  destructive  propen- 
sities, all  wagons  in  some  parts  of  the  country  have  the 
same  width  of  tread  so  that  each  wheel  follows  in  paths 
made  by  other  wheels,  until  they  cut  ruts  of  consider- 
able depth.  These  little  narrow  ditches  hold  water  so 
that  it  cannot  run  off  into  the  drains  at  the  sides  of  the 
roadway.  When  a  rut  gets  started,  each  passing  wheel 
squeezes  out  the  muddy  water,  or  if  the  wheel  be  re- 
volving at  a  speed  faster  than  a  walk  it  throws  the 
water,  and  the  water  carries  part  of  the  roadway  with 
it  so  that  small  ruts  are  made  large  and  deep  ruts 


Figure  224. — Heavy  Breaking  Plow,  used  for  road  work  and  other 
tough  jobs. 

are  made  deeper.  In  some  limited  sections  road  rules 
demand  that  wagons  shall  have  wide  tires  and  have 
shorter  front  axles,  so  that  with  the  wide  tires  and  the 
uneven  treads  the  wheels  act  as  rollers  instead  of  rut 
makers.  It  is  difficult  to  introduce  such  requirements 
into  every  farm  section.  In  the  meantime  the  evils  of 
narrow  tires  may  be  overcome  to  a  certain  extent  by 
the  persistent  and  proper  use  of  the  split-log  road  drag. 
These  drags  are  most  effectual  in  the  springtime  when 
the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground.  During  the 
muddy  season  the  roads  get  worked  up  into  ruts  and 
mire  holes,  which,  if  taken  in  time,  may  be  filled  by 
running  lengthwise  of  the  road  with  the  drag  when  the 
earth  is  still  soft.    When  the  ground  shows  dry  on  top 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  225 

and  is  still  soft  and  wet  underneath  is  the  time  the 
drags  do  the  best  work  by  scraping  the  drier  hummocks 
into  the  low  places  where  the  earth  settles  hard  as  it 
dries. 

A  well  rounded,  smooth  road  does  not  get  muddy  in 
the  summer  time.  Summer  rains  usually  come  with  a 
dash.  Considerable  water  falls  in  a  short  time,  and 
the  very  act  of  falling  with  force  first  lays  the  dust, 
then  packs  the  surface.  The  smooth  packed  surface 
acts  like  a  roof,  and  almost  before  the  rain  stops  falling 
all  surface  water  is  drained  off  to  the  sides  so  that  an 
inch  down  under  the  surface  the  roadbed  is  as  hard  as 
it  was  before  the  rain.  That  is  the  reason  why  split  log 
road  drags  used  persistently  in  the  spring  and  occa- 
sionally later  in  the  season  will  preserve  good  roads  all 
summer.  It  is  very  much  better  to  follow  each  summer 
rain  with  the  road  drag,  but  it  is  not  so  necessary  as 
immediate  attention  at  the  proper  time  in  spring.  Be- 
sides, farmers  are  so  busy  during  the  summer  months 
that  they  find  it  difficult  to  spend  the  time.  In  some 
sections  of  the  middle  West  one  man  is  hired  to  do  the 
dragging  at  so  much  per  trip  over  the  road.  He  makes 
his  calculations  accordingly  and  is  prepared  to  do  the 
dragging  at  all  seasons  when  needed.  This  plan  usu- 
ally works  out  the  best  because  one  man  then  makes  it 
his  business  and  he  gets  paid  for  the  amount  of  work 
performed.  This  man  should  live  at  the  far  end  of  the 
road  division  so  that  he  can  smooth  his  own  pathway 
leading  to  town. 

STEEL  ROAD  DRAG 

Manufacturers  are  making  road  drags  of  steel  with 
tempered  blades  adjustable  to  any  angle  by  simply 
moving  the  lever  until  the  dog  engages  in  the  proper 


226 


FARM  MECHANICS 


notch.  Some  of  these  machines  are  made  with  blades 
reversible,  so  that  the  other  side  can  be  used  for  cut- 
ting when  the  first  edge  is  worn.  For  summer  use  the 
steel  drag  works  very  well,  but  it  lacks  the  smoothing 
action  of  a  well  balanced  log  drag. 

SEED  HOUSE  AND  BARN  TRUCKS 

Bag  trucks  for  handling  bags  of  grain  and  seeds 
should  be  heavy.  Bag  truck  wheels  should  be  eight 
inches  in  diameter  with  a  three-inch  face.    The  steel 


Figure  225. — Barn  Trucks.  The  platform  truck  is  made  to  move 
boxed  apples  and  other  fruit.  The  bag  truck  is  well  proportioned 
and  strong,  but  is  not  full  ironed. 


bar  or  shoe  that  lifts  and  carries  the  bag  should  be 
twenty-two  inches  in  length.  That  means  that  the  bot- 
tom of  the  truck  in  front  is  twenty-two  inches  wide. 
The  wheels  run  behind  this  bar  so  the  hubs  do  not  pro- 
ject to  catch  against  standing  bags  or  door  frames.  The 
length  of  truck  handles  from  the  steel  lift  bar  to  the 
top  end  of  the  hand  crook  is  four  feet,  six  inches.    In 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


227 


buying  bag  trucks  it  is  better  to  get  the  heavy  solid 
kind  that  will  not  upset.  The  light  ones  are  a  great 
nuisance  when  running  them  over  uneven  floors.    The 


"V- • 


Figure  226. — Farm  Gate  Post  with  Copper  Mail  Box. 


wheels  are  too  narrow  and  too  close  together  and  the 
trucks  tip  over  under  slight  provocation.  Platform 
trucks  for  use  in  moving  boxes  of  apples  or  crates  of 


228 


FARM  MECHANICS 


potatoes  or  bags  of  seed  in  the  seed  house  or  warehouse 
also  should  be  heavy.  The  most  approved  platform 
truck,  the  kind  that  market  men  use,  is  made  with  a 
frame  four  feet  in  length  by  two  feet  in  width.  The 
frame  is  made  of  good  solid  hardwood  put  together 


Figure  227. — Concrete  Post  Supporting  a  Waterproof  Clothes  Line 
Reel  Box. 


with  mortise  and  tenon.  The  cross  pieces  or  stiles 
are  three-quarters  of  an  inch  lower  than  the  side  pieces 
or  rails,  which  space  is  filled  with  hardwood  flooring 
boards  firmly  bolted  to  the  cross  pieces  so  they  come  up 
flush  with  the  side  timbers.  The  top  of  the  platform 
should  be  sixteen  inches  up  from  the  floor.    There  are 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


229 


two  standards  in  front  which  carry  a  woodfen  crossbar 
over  the  front  end  of  the  truck.  This  crossbar  is  used 
for  a  handle  to  push  or  pull  the  truck.  The  height  of 
the  handle-bar  from  the  floor  is  three  feet.  Rear  wheels 
are  five  inches  in  diameter  and  work 
on  a  swivel  so  they  turn  in  any  direc- 
tion like  a  castor.  The  two  front 
wheels  carry  the  main  weight.  They 
are  twelve  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
three-inch  face.  The  wheels  are  bored 
to  fit  a  one-inch  steel  axle  and  have 
wide  boxings  bolted  to  the  main  tim- 
bers of  the  truck  frame.  Like  the 
two-wheel  bag  truck,  the  wheels  of 
the  platform  truck  are  under  the 
frame  so  they  do  not  project  out  in 
the  way,  which  is  a  great  advantage 
when  the  truck  is  being  used  in  a 
crowded  place. 


^=tir 


HOME  CANNING  OUTFIT 


There 


small 


outfits 


I 


are    small    canning    uutiit»      Figure  228.- 
manuf actured  and  sold  for  farm  use  ^^'^^.  waiter.  The 

.       .    _        cage  IS  poised  by  a 

that  work  on  the   factory  principle,  counterweight,    it 

TTi  •  ^   1.1         4.1!:     f      X-         •      is  guided  by  a  rope 

For  canning  vegetables,  the  heating  is  belt  which  runs  on 
done  under  pressure  because  a  great  tlJe  top  and  bottom, 
deal  of  heat  is  necessary  to  destroy 
the  bacteria  that  spoil  vegetables  in  the  cans.  Steam 
under  pressure  is  a  good  deal  hotter  than  boiling  water. 
There  is  considerable  work  in  using  a  canning  outfit, 
but  it  gets  the  canning  out  of  the  way  quickly.  Extra 
help  may  be  employed  for  a  few  days  to  do  the  canning 
on  the  same  principle  that  farmers  employ  extra  help 
at  threshing  time  and  do  it  all  up  at  once.    Of  course. 


230 


FARM  MECHANICS 


fruits  and  vegetables  keep  coming  along  at  different 
times  in  the  summer,  but  the  fall  fruit  canning  may 
be  done  at  two  or  three  sittings  arranged  a  week  or  two 


W^ 


Figure  229. — Clothes  Line  Tightener.    This  device  is  made  of  No.  9 
wire  bent  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 


Figure  230. — Goat  Stall.  Milch  goats  are  milked  on  a  raised 
platform.  Feed  is  placed  in  the  manger.  The  opening  in  the  side 
of  the  manger  is  a  stanchion  to  hold  them  steady. 


apart  and  enough  fruit  packed  away  in  the  cellar  to 
last  a  big  family  a  whole  year.  Canning  machinery  is 
simple  and  inexpensive.  These  outfits  may  be  bought 
from  $10  up.    Probably  a  $20  or  $25  canner  would 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


231 


be  large  enough  for  a  large  family,  or  a  dozen  dif- 
ferent families  if  it  could  be  run  on  a  co-operative 
plan. 


Figure  231. — Horse  Clippers.  Hand  clippers  are  shown  to  the 
left.  The  flexible  shaft  clipper  to  the  right  may  be  turned  by  hand 
for  clipping  a  few  horses  or  shearing  a  few  sheep,  but  for  real  busi- 
ness it  should  be  driven  by  an  electric  motor. 


ELECTRIC  TOWEL 


The  *'air  towel''  is  sanitary,  as  well  as  an  economical 
method  of  drying  the  hands.  A  foot  pedal  closes  a  quick- 


232  FARM  MECHANICS 

acting  switch,  thereby  putting  into  operation  a  blower 
that  forces  air  through  an  electric  heating  devise  so 
arranged  as  to  distribute  the  warmed  air  to  all  parts 
of  the  hands  at  the  same  time.  The  supply  of  hot  air 
continues  as  long  as  the  foot  pedal  is  depressed.  The 
hands  are  thoroughly  dried  in  thirty  seconds. 

STALLS  FOR  MILCH  GOATS 

Milch  goats  are  not  fastened  with  stanchions  like 
cows.  The  front  of  the  manger  is  boarded  tight  with 
the  exception  of  a  round  hole  about  two  feet  high  and 
a  slit  in  the  boards  reaching  from  the  round  opening  to 


Figure  232. — Hog  Catching  Plook.  The  wooden  handle  fits  loosely 
into  the  iron  socket.  As  soon  as  the  hog's  hind  leg  is  engaged  the 
wooden  handle  is  removed  and  the  rope  held  taut. 

within  a  few  inches  of  the  floor.  The  round  hole  is 
made  large  enough  so  that  the  goat  puts  her  head 
through  to  reach  the  feed,  and  the  slit  is  narrow  enough 
so  she  cannot  back  up  to  pull  the  feed  out  into  the  stall. 
This  is  a  device  to  save  fodder. 

STABLE   HELPS 

Overhead  tracks  have  made  feed  carriers  possible. 
Litter  or  feed  carriers  and  manure  carriers  run  on  the 
same  kind  of  a  track,  the  only  difference  is  in  size  and 
shape  of  the  car  and  the  manner  in  which  the  contents 
are  unloaded.  Manure  carriers  and  litter  carriers  have 
a  continuous  track  that  runs  along  over  the  manure 
gutters  and  overhead  lengthwise  of  the  feed  alleys. 
There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  carriers  man- 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


233 


uf  actured,  all  of  which  seem  to  do  good  service.  The 
object  is  to  save  labor  in  doing  the  necessary  work 
about  dairy  stables.  To  get  the  greatest  possible  profit 
from  cows,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  stable 


Figure  233. — Bull  Nose-Chain.  Cross  bulls  may  be  turned  out  to 
pasture  with  some  degree  of  safety  by  snapping  a  chain  like  this 
into  the  nose-ring.  The  chain  should  be  just  long  enough  to  swing 
and  wrap  around  the  bull's  front  legs  when  he  is  running.  Also  the 
length  is  intended  to  drag  the  ring  where  he  will  step  on  it  with 
his  front  feet.    There  is  some  danger  of  pulling  the  nose  ring  out. 


Figure  234. — Manure  Carriers.  There  are  two  kinds  of  manure 
carriers  in  general  use.  The  principal  difference  is  the  elevator 
attachment  for  hoisting  when  the  spreader  stands  too  high  for  the 
usual  level  dump. 


should  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary,  also  that  the  cows 
shall  be  properly  fed  several  times  a  day.  Different 
kinds  of  feed  are  given  at  the  different  feeding  periods. 
It  is  impossible  to  have  all  the  different  kinds  of  food 
stored  in  sufficient  quantities  within  easy  reach  of  the 
cows.    Hence,  the  necessity  of  installing  some  mechani- 


234 


FARM  MECHANICS 


cal  arrangement  to  fetch  and  carry.  The  only  floor 
carrier  in  use  in  dairy  stables  is  a  truck  for  silage. 
Not  in  every  stable  is  this  the  case.  Sometimes  a  feed 
carrier  is  run  directly  to  the  silo.  It 
depends  a  good  deal  on  the  floor  what 
kind  of  a  carrier  is  best  for  silage. 
The  advantage  of  an  overhead  track 
is  .that  it  is  always  free  from  litter. 
Where  floor  trucks  are  used,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  floor  bare  of 
obstruction.  This  is  not  considered 
a  disadvantage  because  the  floor 
should  be  kept  clean  anyway. 

HOUSE  PLUMBING 

When  water  is  pumped  by  a,n  en- 
gine and  stored  for  use  in  a  tank  to 
be  delivered  under  pressure  in  the 
house,  then  the  additional  cost  of  hot 
and  cold  water  and  the  necessary  sink 
and  bath  room  flxtures  is  compara- 
tively small.  Modem  plumbing  fix- 
tures fit  so  perfectly  and  go  together 
"^  so  easily  that  the  cost  of  installing 

Figure  235.— Cow   housc  plumbing  in  the  country  has 

stanchion.  Wooden    ,  x'n  j         j  I'l^i 

cow  stanchions  been  materially  reduced,  while  the 
^mfortabie^for  the  dangers  from  noxious  gases  have  been 
oSIs!  ^^  *^^  '''''''  entirely  eliminated.  Open  ventilator 
pipes  carry  the  poisonous  gases  up 
through  the  roof  of  the  house  to  float  harmlessly  away 
in  the  atmosphere.  Septic  tanks  take  care  of  the  sew- 
erage better  than  the  sewer  systems  in  some  towns. 
Plumbing  fixtures  may  be  cheap  or  expensive,  accord- 
ing to  the  wishes  and  pocketbook  of  the  owner.    The 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


235 


cheaper  grades  are  just  as  useful,  but  there  are  expen- 
sive outfits  that  are  very  much  more  ornamental. 


FARM  SEPTIC  TANK 


Supplying  water  under  pressure  in  the  farmhouse 
demands  a  septic  tank  to  get  rid  of  the  waste.  A  septic 
tank  is  a  scientific  receptacle  to  take  the  poison  out  of 


CPA/IJ^J' 


HI 


Figure  236. — Frame  for  Holding  Record  Sheets  in  a  Dairy  Stable. 


Figure  237. — Loading  Shute  for  Hogs.     This  loading  shute  is  made 
portable  and  may  be  moved  like  a  wheelbarrow. 


sewerage.  It  is  a  simple  affair  consisting  of  two  under- 
ground compartments,  made  water-tight,  with  a  sewer 
pipe  to  lead  the  waste  water  from  the  house  into  the 
first  compartment  and  a  drain  to  carry  the  denatured 
sewerage  away  from  the  second  compartment.  The 
first  compartment  is  open  to  the  atmosphere,  through  a 
ventilator,  but  the  second  compartment  is  made  as 


236 


FARM  MECHANICS 


nearly  air-tight  as  possible.  The  scientific  working  of  a 
septic  tank  depends  upon  the  destructive  work  of  two 
kinds  of  microscopic  life  known  as  aerobic  and  anarobic 
forms  of  bacteria.  Sewerage  in  the  first  tank  is  worked 
over  by  aerobic  bacteria,  the  kind  that  require  a  small 
amount  of  oxygen  in  order  to  live  and  carry  on  their 


Figure  238. — Brass  Valves.  Two  kinds  of  globe  valves  are  used  in 
farm  waterworks.  The  straight  valve  shown  to  the  left  and  the 
right  angle  valve  to  the  right.  Either  one  may  be  fitted  with  a  long 
shank  to  reach  above  ground  when  pipes  are  laid  deep  to  prevent 
freezing. 

work.  The  second  compartment  is  inhabited  by  anaero- 
bic bacteria,  or  forms  of  microscopic  life  that  work 
practically  without  air.  The  principles  of  construc- 
tion require  that  a  septic  tank  shall  be  large  enough  to 
contain  two  days '  supply  of  sewerage  in  each  compart- 
ment; thus,  requiring  four  days  for  the  sewerage  to 
enter  and  leave  the  tank. 

Estimating  75  gallons  daily  of  sewerage  for  each  in- 
habitant of  the  house  and  four  persons  to  a  family,  the 
septic  tank  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  600  gallons, 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES 


237 


three  hundred  gallons  in  each  compartment,  which 
would  require  a  tank  about  four  feet  in  width  and  six 
feet  in  length  and  four  feet  in  depth.  These  figures 
embrace  more  cubic  feet  of  tank  than  necessary  to  meet 
the  foregoing  requirements.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  leave 
a  margin  of  safety. 

It  is  usual  to  lay  a  vitrified  sewer,  four  inches  in 
diameter,  from  below  the  bottom  of  the  cellar  to  the 


\  'Jl L  \  -.%,-;.//';'•••'*»*.•'/.' '. ♦•PHg;;^%v*'-'<^/j:'^%;.*«;:^'';X.  •f'.-!  I 


'l^yi^ff^^;'^\</f}^/^if\///y/p^^'*^^^^^^^ 


Figure  239. — Septic  Tank,  a  double  antiseptic  process  for  purifying 
sewerage. 

septic  tank,  giving  it  a  fall  of  one-eighth  inch  in  ten 
feet.  The  sewer  enters  the  tank  at  the  top  of  the  stand- 
ing liquid  and  delivers  the  fresh  sewerage  from  the 
house  through  an  elbow  and  a  leg  of  pipe  that  reaches 
to  within  about  six  inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 
The  reason  for  this  is  to  admit  fresh  sewerage  without 
disturbing  the  scum  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the 
tank.  The  scum  is  a  protection  for  the  bacteria.  It 
helps  them  to  carry  on  their  work  of  destruction.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  the  second  compartment. 
The  liquid  from  the  first  compartment  is  carried  over 
into  the  second  compartment  by  means  of  a  bent  pipe 


238  FARM  MECHANICS 

in  the  form  of  a  siphon  which  fills  up  gradually  and 
empties  automatically  when  the  liquid  in  the  first  com- 
partment rises  to  a  certain  level.  The  discharging 
siphon  leg  should  be  the  shortest.  The  liquid  from  the 
second  compartment  is  discharged  into  the  drain  in  the 
same  manner.  There  are  special  valves  made  for  the 
final  discharge,  but  they  are  not  necessary.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  tank  is  dug  deep  enough  to  hold  sewerage 
from  two  to  four  feet  in  depth.  The  top  surface  of  the 
liquid  in  the  tank  is  held  down  to  a  level  of  at  least  six 
inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  cellar.  So  there  is  no 
possible  chance  of  the  house  sewer  filling  and  backing 
up  towards  the  house.  Usually  the  vitrified  sewer  pipe 
is  four  inches  in  diameter,  the  septic  tank  siphons  for 
a  small  tank  are  three  inches  in  diameter  and  the  final 
discharge  pipe  is  three  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  rapid 
fall  for  the  first  ten  feet  after  leaving  the  tank. 

Septic  tanks  should  be  made  of  concrete,  water- 
proofed on  the  inside  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  seep- 
age. Septic  tank  tops  are  made  of  reinforced  concrete 
with  manhole  openings.  Also  the  manhole  covers  are 
made  of  reinforced  concrete,  either  beveled  to  fit  the 
openings  or  made  considerably  larger  than  the  open- 
ing, so  that  they  sit  down  flat  on  the  top  surface  of  the 
tank.  These  covers  are  always  deep  enough  down  in 
the  ground  so  that  when  covered  over  the  earth  holds 
them  in  place. 

In  laying  vitrified  sewer  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
calk  each  joint  with  okum  or  lead,  or  okum  reinforced 
with  cement.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  make  a  joint 
tight  with  cement  alone,  although  it  can  be  done  by  an 
expert.  Each  length  of  the  sewer  pipe  should  be  given 
a  uniform  grade.  The  vitrified  sewer  is  trapped  out- 
side of  the  building  with  an  ordinary  S-trap  ventilated, 


MISCELLANEOUS  FARM  CONVENIENCES  239 

which  leaves  the  sewer  open  to  the  atmosphere  and  pre- 
vents the  possibility  of  back-pressure  that  might  drive 
the  poisonous  gases  from  the  decomposing  sewerage 
through  the  sewer  back  into  the  house.  In  this  way,  the 
septic  tank  is  made  entirely  separate  from  the  house 
plumbing,  except  that  the  two  systems  are  connected  at 
this  outside  trap. 

It  is  sometimes  recommended  that  the  waste  water 
from  the  second  compartment  shall  be  distributed 
through  a  series  of  drains  made  with  three-inch  or 
four-inch  drain  tile  and  that  the  outlet  of  this  set  of 
drains  shall  empty  into  or  connect  with  a  regularly 
organized  field  drainage  system.  Generally  speaking, 
the  final  discharge  of  liquid  from  a  septic  tank  that  is 
properly  constructed  is  inoffensive  and  harmless.  How- 
ever, it  is  better  to  use  every  possible  precaution  to  pre- 
serve the  health  of  the  family,  and  it  is  better  to  dis- 
pose of  the  final  waste  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  any 
farm  animal  from  drinking  it. 

While  manholes  are  built  into  septic  tanks  for  the 
purpose  of  examination,  in  practice  they  are  seldom 
required.  If  the  tanks  are  properly  built  and  rightly 
proportioned  to  the  sewerage  requirements  they  will 
take  care  of  the  waste  water  from  the  house  year  after 
year  without  attention.  Should  any  accidents  occur, 
they  are  more  likely  to  be  caused  by  a  leakage  in  the 
vitrified  sewer  than  from  any  other  cause.  Manufac- 
turers of  plumbing  supplies  furnish  the  siphons  to- 
gether with  instructions  for  placing  them  properly  in 
the  concrete  walls.  Some  firms  supply  advertising 
matter  from  which  to  work  out  the  actual  size  and  pro- 
portions of  the  different  compartments  and  all  connec- 
tions. The  making  of  a  septic  tank  is  simple  when  the 
principle  is  once  understood* 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Acetylene  gas 129 

Air  pressure  pump 107 

Anvil   33 

Apple-picking  bag   • 216 

ladder   215 

Asparagus   knife    205 

Auger,  ship    26 

Auger-bit 24,  25 

Automatic  hog  feeder .* 219 

Axles,  wagon  , 52 

Babbitting  boxings 73 

Barn  trucks 226 

Belt  punch  211 

work 146 

Bench  and  vise 34 

Bench  for  iron  work 35 

for  woodworking 16 

Bipod 206 

Bits,  extension  boring 26 

Bit,  twist-drill,  for  wood-boring 25 

Blacksmith  hammers   61 

shop 31 

Block  and  tackle 77 

Bobsleighs    . . .  • 188 

Boiler,  steam 90 

Bolster  spring 186 

stake    187 

Bolt  cutter 45 

Bolts,  carriage  and  machine 56 

emergency 53 

home-made   52 

plow  and  sickle  bar 56 

Boxings,  babbitting 73 

Brace,  wagon-box 58 

Bramble  hook 20 

Brass  valves 236 

Breeding  crate  for  hogs 203 

Brick  trowel , 209 

241 


242  INDEX 

PAGE 

Bridge  auger 26 

Bucket  yoke 75 

Buck  rake 165 

Building  bracket 202 

Bull  nose-chain   233 

treadmill 81 

Cable  hay  stacker 176 

California  hay  ricker 176 

Calipers    43 

Caliper  rule   14 

Canning  outfit 229 

Carpenter 's  bench 17 

trestle    17 

Cart,  two-wheel  191 

Centrifugal  pumps   105 

Chain,  logging '. 50 

Chisels  and  gouges 28 

Circular  saw,  filing 69 

jointing    68 

setting 68 

Clearing  land  by  tractor 146 

Clevises,  plow 58 

Clod  crusher 155 

Clothes  line  reel  box,  concrete 228 

Clothes  line  tightener 230 

Cold-chisel    37 

Colt-breaking  sulkey   192 

Compasses 18 

Concrete  center  alley  for  hog  house 209 

farm  scale  base  and  pit 196 

hog  wallow 209 

wall  mold 210 

Conveniences,  miscellaneous  farm 194 

Conveyances,  farm   179 

Corn  crib,  double 201 

two-story 194 

Corn  cultivator   142 

planter 158 

shock  horse    208 

Cotter  pin  tool 44 

Coulter  clamp   54 

Countersink    41 

Cow  stanchion  234 

Crop  machinery,  special 161 

Crops,  kind  of,  to  irrigate 118 

Crowbars 46 


INDEX  243 

PAGE 

Cultivator,  combination 143 

corn 142 

Cutting  nippers 46 

Derrick  fork 168 

Dies  and  taps 55 

Diggers,  potato ^. 205 

Disk  harrow 152 

plow 137 

Dog  churn , 79 

power 80 

Draw-filing 62 

Drawing-knife   22 

Drill,  grain    160 

power  post 38 

Drill-press    39 

electric 40 

Driven  machines 100 

Dumbwaiter   229 

Economy  of  plowing  by  tractor 146 

Electricity  on  the  farm 121,  127 

Electric  lighting 123 

Electric  power  plant 122 

towel   231 

Elevating  machinery   133 

Elevator,  grain   134 

Emery  grinders 31 

Engine  and  truck,  portable 94 

Engine,  gasoline  91 

kerosene .' 92 

steam 90 

Eveners  for  three-  and  four -horse  teams 139 

Extension  boring  bits 26 

Farm  conveniences  194 

conveyances    179 

office 194 

shop  and  implement  house 9 

shop  work    50 

tractor 97 

waterworks    89,  100 

Feed  crusher   131 

Feeding  racks   217 

Fence-making  tools   205,  206 

Fence  pliers 207 

File  handle 36 

Files  and  rasps 36 


244  INDEX 

PAGE 

Filing  hand  saw 56 

roll 63 

Flail    75 

Fore-plane    h.     27 

Forge 32 

Forges,  portable   32 

Forging  iron  and  steel 59 

Fruit  picking 212 

ladders 215 

tray   213 

Fruit-thinning  nippers 214 

Gambrel  whiffletree 173 

Garage 10 

Garden  weeder 54 

Gas,  acetylene 129 

Gasoline  engine s 91 

house  lightning 128 

Gate,   sliding   field 205 

Gatepost  with  copper  mailbox 227 

Gauge,  double-marking 22 

Generating  mechanical  power 74 

Goat  stall    230 

Grain  drill 160 

elevator   134 

elevator,  portable   135 

Grass  hook 163 

Grindstone 28 

Hacksaw 45 

Hammers,  blacksmith 61 

machinist 's 42 

Hand  axe 23 

Hand  saw   19,  65 

filing    66 

jointing 65 

setting 65 

using 67 

Handspike    24 

Hardy   43 

Harness  punch 211 

Harrow  cart  . . : 154 

disk   152 

sled    141 

spike-tooth    141 

Harvesting   by   tractor 146 

Hay  carrier  carriage 172 

Hay  crop,  handling < 163 


INDEX  245 

PAGE 

Hay  derricks,  Idaho 171 

Western    169 

Hayf ord,  double  harpoon 169 

grapple    170 

hitch    173 

hood 197 

Hayrake,   revolving    163 

Hay  ricker,  California 176 

Hay  rope  pulleys 174 

Hay  skids    167 

Hay  sling 167 

Hay  stacker,  cable 176 

Haystack   knife    168 

Hay-tedder 165 

Hay-track  roof  extension   197 

Hoe,  how  to  sharpen 70 

wheel    162 

Hoes  and  weeders * 204 

Hog   catching  hook 232 

Hog  feeder,  automatic 219 

trough     • 221 

trough,    re-inf orced    222 

wallow,  concrete 209 

Hoist,  oldest  farm 133 

Hoists   78 

Home  repair  work,  profitable 50 

Horse   clippers    231 

Horse  feeding  rack , 218 

Horsepower    86 

House  plumbing 234 

Husking-pin 208 

Hydraulic  ram 95 

Idaho  hay   derricks 171 

Implement   shed    10 

shed  and  work  shop 12 

Iron,    forging    . . 59 

Irons  for  neckyoke  and  whifletree 51 

Iron  roller 157 

Iron  working  tools 42 

Irrigation   112 

by  pumping 112 

overhead  spray 116 

Jointer,  carpenter  ^s   27 

Jointer  plows    144 

Jointing  hand  saw 65 

Kerosene  engine   92 


246  INDEX 

PAGE 

Keyhole  saw 20 

Knife,  asparagus   205 

corn   cutting 205 

haystack    168 

Knots ,  212 

Lag  screw 57 

Land  float 156 

Level,  carpenter 's 24 

iron  stock 25 

Lighting,  gasoline 128 

Linchpin  farm  wagons 185 

Link,  cold-shut ; . .  43 

plow 58 

Loading  chute  for  hogs 235 

Logging  chain ' 50 

Machines,  driven 100 

Machinist  *s  hammers 42 

vise 47 

Manure  carriers 233 

Marline  spike 212 

Measuring  mechanical  work 14 

Mechanical  power,  generating 74 

Mechanics  of  plowing 138 

Melting  ladle 73 

Monkey-wrench 19 

Mule  pump 84 

Nail  hammers 21 

Nail  set 37 

Office,  farm   194 

Oilstone 15 

Overhead  spray  irrigation 116 

Oxen    181 

Paint  brushes 212 

Pea  guard 168 

Picking  fruit 212 

Pig-pen,  sanitary   210 

Pincers    , 44 

Pipe  cutter 48 

Pipe-fitting  tools 46 

Pipe  vise ! 47 

wrench 48 

Plastering  trowel 209 

Pliers .^. 18 

Plow,  heavy-breaking .' ..v-» 224 

riding    140 

walking 138 


INDEX  247 

PAGE 

Plowing  by  tractor 145 

importance  of 137 

mechanics  of   138 

Plows,  jointer   144 

Scotch 143 

Plumb-bob  and  plumb-line " 206 

Plumbing,  house  234 

Pod-bit    25 

Portable  farm  engine 94 

Post-hole  diggers   204 

Poultry  feeding  trough 222 

Power  conveyor 121 

Power,  generating  mechanical 75 

Power  post  drill 38 

Power  transmission 120 

Pulverizers   155 

Pump,  air  pressure 107 

centrifugal 105 

mule 84 

jack  109 

jacks  and  speed  jacks Ill 

rotary    103 

suction 101 

Punches 37 

Quantity  of  water  to  use  in  irrigation 118 

Backs,  feeding 217 

sheep  feeding 219 

Eaf ter  grapple   173 

Easp 35 

Easps  and  files 36 

Eatchet-brace 40 

Eefrigeration 123 

Eeservoir  for  supplying  water  to  farm  buildings 120 

Eevolving  hayrake 163 

Eiding  plow 140 

Eipsaw 21 

Eivets    53 

Eivet  set 54 

Eoad  drag,  split-log 220 

steel 225 

Eoad  work  146 

EoUer    156 

EoU  filing 63 

Eoof  pitches    200 

truss    199 

Eoot  pulper   130 


248  INDEX 

PAGE 

Eotary  pumps  103 

Eound  barn,  economy  of 196 

Rule  of  six,  eight  and  ten 199 

Sand  bands   187 

caps 188 

Sanitary   pig-pen    ■. 210 

Saw,  hack    45 

Scotch  plows   143 

Screwdriver    23 

ratchet 24 

Seed  house  trucks 226 

Septic  tank   235 

Set-screws 64 

Shave  horse  18 

Shears  .' 217 

Sheep  feeding  rack 219 

Sheepshank 212 

Ship  auger 26 

Shoeing  horses 71 

knife 34 

tool  box - 34 

Shop,  garage  and  implement  shed 10 

Shop  tools   14 

Slaughter  house 198 

Sliding  field  gate 205 

Snips,  sheet  metal 25 

Soil  auger 204 

tools 202 

Soil,  working  the 137 

Speed  indicator 201 

jacks   Ill 

Split-log  road  drag 220  " 

Spud    205 

Stable  helps .   232 

Stall  for  milch  goats 232 

Steam  boiler  and  engine 90 

Steel,  forging 59 

road  drag 225 

square   22 

tools,  making 60 

Stepladder 216 

Stock  for  dies 55 

Stone-boat    '. . . ; 179 

Stump  puller   131 

Suction  pumps 101 


INDEX  249 

PAGE 

Sulkey,  colt-breaking 192 

S   wrenches    44 

Tapeline    15 

Taper  reamer 41 

tap 56 

Taps  and  dies 55 

Tempering  steel  tools 60 

Tongs    43 

Tool  box  for  field  use 72 

handy 72 

Tool  rack,  blacksmith 34 

Tools  for  fence-making 205 

for  woodworking 19 

for  working  iron 42 

pipe-fitting   46 

soil 202 

Tractor   economy    146 

farm    97 

transmission  gear 98 

used  in  plowing 145 

uses  for,  on  farm 146 

Tram  points 40 

Travoy 183 

Treadmill,  bull 81 

Tree  pruners 216 

Trowel,  brick 209 

plastering 209 

Trucks,  barn   .'. 226 

Try-square    22 

Twist-drills    25,  41 

IT  bolt  in  cement 57 

Uses  of  electricity  on  farm 126 

Valves,  brass 236 

Vise 38 

Wagon-box  irons 57 

Wagon  brakes 186 

seat  spring 187 

Walking  plow   138 

Water-power 88 

Water  storage 100 

Waterworks,  farm 100 

WeU  sweep 76 

Wheelbarrow   180 

Wheel  hoe 162 

Winches    79 

Windmills 83 


250  INDEX 

PAGE 

Wire  splice 52 

splicer   44 

stretcher   77 

Wooden  clamp 18 

roller   157 

Wood-saw  frames  129 

Woodworking  bench 16 

tools 19 

Working  the  soil 137 

Wrecking  bar , , , , ,  • , 24 


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na«<^R^"g^ 


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REC'D  LD 


JUL  :{ 1  1959 


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HAR30'64-vP« 


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F'3.  CiB.Fra  1 6  -?H 


